Chipotles Three Ethical Issues - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 602 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2019/05/17 Category Society Essay Level High school Tags: Ethical Dilemma Essay Did you like this example? When Chipotle opened its first restaurant in 1993, the idea was simple: show that food served fast didnt have to be a fast-food experience. Chipotles website says that, over 23 years later, our devotion to seeking out the very best ingredients we can remains at the core of our commitment to Food with Integrity (Our Company 2018, 1). However, two E. Coli outbreaks hit Chipotle in 2015, which infected 60 customers. As the FDA was not able to pinpoint the direct cause of this issue, three ethical issues have been identified as the potential causes. The first issue is Chipotles overall concern for ingredient sourcing that are in compliance with FDA standards. In Chipotles2017 annual report, it states that, the Executive Director of Food Safety directs a quality assurance department that establishes and monitors their quality and food safety programs, and works closely with their suppliers to ensure their high standards are met throughout the supply chain (Annual report 2017, 9). The combination of the quality assurance department and food safety programs is the efficient approach which may prevent ingredient sourcing risks. It is important for Chipotle to clarify what they want and what their customers value. Finding the balance between ethical standards and financial intelligence is critical to a companys success. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Chipotles Three Ethical Issues" essay for you Create order The second issue is if Chipotle employees are being properly trained to prepare and serve foods in correlation to FDA standards. According to the notes of consolidated financial statements from 2015 to 2017, it declares that, pre-opening costs, including training, rent, wages and other restaurant operating costs, are expensed as incurred prior to a restaurant opening for business, and are included in operating expenses on the consolidated statement of income (Annual report 2017, 52). The annual report shows that pre-opening costs are $16,922,000, $17,162,000 and $12,341,000 separately from 2015 to 2017. However, from these notes, it is hard to tell whether training expense is enough or not for Chipotle. Furthermore, there is no explanation for the decrease of pre-opening costs from 2016 to 2017. In my opinion, it is better to declare expenses in training that has occurred, which will help stakeholders have direct and clear insights into efforts of training that Chipotle has made. The third issue is if the board has performed their responsibilities in corporate governance guidelines. A well-defined and enforced corporate governance provides a structure that, at least in theory, works for the benefit of everyone concerned by ensuring that the enterprise adheres to accepted ethical standards and best practices as well as to formal laws (Rouse 2008, 1). From Chipotles 2017 annual report, Chipotle adopts the Board Performance Self-Evaluation Process to consider whether and how well each committee has performed the responsibilities in its charter and whether the committee members possess the right skills and experience to perform their responsibilities (Annual report 2017, 95). The adoption of this process will help Chipotle keep overseeing the annual operation and committee responsibilities which makes sense for preventing Chipotle from ethical dilemmas in the future. In conclusion, I believe that Chipotle did act unethically in their previous business practices. However, their annual reports from 2015 to 2017 show some improvements and efforts they have made. In order to prevent another E. Coli outbreak, Chipotle must make it a priority to ensure the safety of their foods. In order to fix their ingredient sourcing issue, Chipotle must focus on their quality assurance department and food safety program. To be considered ethical, Chipotle must give their employees the tools to succeed and generate great products. Whats more, the board must continuously perform the responsibilities in corporate 4 governance guidelines. Last but not least, Chipotle must be willing to spend more on food safety, quality assurance and training expenses, and find a better way to realize financial intelligence.

Smoking Habits Of The Ohio State University Students Essay

Introduction: According to the Center of Disease Control national survey, smoking habits have significantly decreased in the United States (CDC). With medical evidence and stricter regulations, smoking traditional tobacco cigarettes are perceived as a concerning habit. As traditional cigarette usage declines, the use of electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) have been a popular alternative, especially prominent among young adults ages 18-24 years old (CDC). E-cigarettes are inhaled in a liquid vapor form however, like traditional cigarettes, have highly addictive toxins and carcinogens (Stop Cancer Fund). In relation with national smoking habits of traditional cigarettes and e-cigarettes, this paper analyzing smoking habits of the Ohio State University students. Many campuses, including the Ohio State University, have implemented tobacco free polices to promote healthier lifestyles for students, employees and visitors (Tobacco Free OSU). In early 2014, Ohio State issued the tobacco fre e policy, which prohibits all tobacco-derived products on university own property and buildings. The 2016 autumn semester was the first time Ohio State implemented required on-campus living for freshmen and sophomore students. Considering that on-campus housing follow the tobacco free policy, this may constrain students from engaging in tobacco smoking behavior. We are interested in how the national statistics relate to Ohio State student’s smoking habits. Specifically, analyzing theShow MoreRelatedBanning Smoking On Ohio University s Campus833 Words   |  4 Pages Banning Smoking on Ohio University’s Campus Ohio University president, Roderick McDavis stated that â€Å"We will join more than 1,000 campuses nationwide who ban the use of tobacco on their campuses,†(Lee). Banning smoking will help make the campus area healthy by encouraging the smokers to quit smoking, Ohio University decided to ban smoking on any campus property. The University campus will begin the Smoke and Tobacco-Free Initiative policy in August 2015. The policy will impose by using a communityRead More Second Hand Smoke - Breaths of Death Essay1266 Words   |  6 Pagesstroll around the beautiful campus at State University. The scenery is breathtaking, especially with the promise of autumn about the air. During this particular time of the year, I find great enjoyment in taking a deep breath and inhaling the fragrant aroma of the surrounding nature. However, my enjoyment prematurely ends when the sudden smell of cigarette smoke engulfs me. Sound familiar? If you are a non-smoking student, this scene reflects ev eryday life on a smoking campus. Something must be done aboutRead MoreRestricting Student s Autonomy Essay3309 Words   |  14 Pagesthe place of a parent,† and refers to American universities controlling their students’ actions through discriminatory restraints (Lee 2011, 66). During the 1960s, universities and colleges were regulating students’ personal lives through administrative rules and would take disciplinary action, like expulsion, if broken. â€Å"From the mid-1800s through the late 1950s†, courts supported universities acting â€Å"in loco parentis† in respect to their students (Lee 2011, 66). Higher educational intuitions wereRead Morejesse owen Essay3441 Words   |  14 Pagessymbol of an era as did Jesse Owens. Enduring a childhood marked by grinding poverty in Alabama, Owens became a star athlete in high school after his family moved to Cleveland, Ohio. His achievements earned Owens several lucrative offers to attend college as a t rack-and-field athlete, and he enrolled at Ohio State University in 1933. On May 25, 1935, Owens made national headlines for setting five world records and tying another record at the Big Ten Intercollegiate Championships in Ann Arbor, MichiganRead More Hypnotism Is It Magic Or Reality Essay2641 Words   |  11 Pagessleepyquot; has become a widely used phrase. Hypnosis has almost always been thought of as a magic trick, but recent studies show that it is becoming more popular in medicine and everyday life. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Hypnosis is defined as a state of mind where the body is more reactive to suggestions than in normal conditions. When under hypnosis, one narrows his or her attention to one subject or object. Everyone in the world has experienced hypnosis many times. Some examples are daydreamingRead MoreCigarette Advertising: Ethical Aspect4920 Words   |  20 PagesAssociation have stated their support for a complete ban of all advertising for these kinds of products. The support for the bans comes from multiple sources, one being the nature of the advertisements. They tend to be emphasizing the pleasures of smoking, or even in extreme cases the pleasures of life, without mentioning the health dangers that follow product usage to a larger extent than is at minimum required by law. After Federal Trade Commission put several restrictions on cigarette advertisingRead MoreCigarette Advertising: Ethical Aspect4909 Words   |  20 PagesAssociation have stated their support for a complete ban of all advertising for these kinds of products. The support for the bans comes from multiple sources, one being the nature of the advertisements. They tend to be emphasizing the pleasures of smoking, or even in extreme cases the pleasures of life, without mentioning the health dangers that follow product usage to a larger extent than is at minimum required by law. After Federal Trade Commission put several restrictions on cigarette advertisingRead MoreThe Great Depression Effects On The United States2949 Words   |  12 Pagesdisplaced thousands of families, created hardships for millions of people, shaped an entire generation, and reshaped the way Americans viewed the role of their government,† (Cravens). Although the Great Depression had devastating effects on the United States, its impacts on family life and structure were the most devastating. Children had to take on more responsibilities by attempting to find jobs in a market where there were a scarce amount of jobs even available for adults. These children suffered aRead MoreEssay on Americas War on Drugs5842 Words   |  24 Pagesamazingly the cocaine availability on American streets remained the same. The DEA is shocked, and realizes just how big the drug problem in the United States was. Because the Cartel leaders had money, they also began to acquire power. The dealers run for political office and win. Drug dollars poured into Colombia, building cities. The United States respond to the rise in the drug lords’ power by pressuring Colombia to extradite narcotics traffickers to the U.S. The Colombians, who want no ColombiansRead MoreSmoking Cessation Of Pregnancy : Review Of Current Strategies9414 Words   |  38 Pages SMOKING CESSATION IN PREGNANCY: REVIEW OF CURRENT STRATEGIES Boitumelo A Nkoane-Kelaeng1, Claire M Lawley1,2, Gemma A Figtree1 Cardiovascular Research, Kolling Institute, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, Australia Clinical Population Perinatal Health Research, Kolling Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia Corresponding Author: Professor Gemma A Figtree MBBS DPhil (Oxon) FRACP FAHA North Shore Heart Research Group Kolling Institute of Medical Research Royal North

Battle of Red Cliffs Story free essay sample

Cliffs unfolded in three stages: an initial skirmish at Red Cliffs followed by a retreat to the Wulin battlefields on the northwestern bank of the Yangtze, a decisive naval engagement, and Cao Caos disastrous retreat along Huarong Road. The combined Sun-Liu force sailed upstream from either Xiakou or Fankou to Red Cliffs, where they encountered Cao Caos vanguard force. Plagued by disease and low morale due to the series of forced marches they had undertaken on the prolonged Southern Campaign (de Crespigny 2003), Cao Caos men could not gain an advantage in the small skirmish which ensued, so Cao Cao retreated to Wulin (north of the Yangtze River) and the allies pulled back to the south (de Crespigny 2004:257). Cao Cao had moored his ships from stem to stern, possibly aiming to reduce seasickness in his navy, which comprised mostly northerners who were not used to living on ships. Observing this, divisional commander Huang Gai sent Cao Cao a letter feigning surrender and prepared a squadron of capital ships described as mengchong doujian ( ). We will write a custom essay sample on Battle of Red Cliffs Story or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The ships had been converted into fire ships by filling them with bundles of kindling, dry reeds, and fatty oil. As Huang Gais defecting squadron approached the midpoint of the river, the sailors applied fire to the ships before taking to small boats. The unmanned fire ships, carried by the southeastern wind, sped towards Cao Caos fleet and set it ablaze. Within a short time smoke and flames stretched across the sky, and a large number of men and horses either burned to death or drowned (Chen c. 280:54. 1262-63). Following the initial shock, Zhou Yu and the allies led a lightly armed force to capitalize on the assault. The northern army was thrown into confusion and was utterly smashed. Seeing the situation was hopeless, Cao Cao then issued a general order of retreat and destroyed a number of his remaining ships before withdrawing (Chen c. 280). Cao Caos army attempted a retreat along Huarong Road, including a long stretch passing through marshlands north of Dongting Lake. Heavy rains had reduced the track to thick mire, making the road so treacherous that many of the sick soldiers had to carry bundles of grass on their backs and use them to fill the road, to allow the horsemen to cross. Many of these soldiers drowned in the mud or were trampled to death in the effort. To the misery of Cao Caos army, the allies, led by Zhou Yu and Liu Bei, gave chase over land and water until they reached Nan Commandery ( ). Combined with famine and disease, this decimated Cao Caos remaining forces. Cao Cao then retreated north to his home base of Ye, leaving Cao Ren and Xu Huang to guard Jiangling, Yue Jin stationed in Xiangyang, and Man Chong in Dangyang (Chen c. 280).

Planet Philippines Essay Example

Planet Philippines Paper Miguele Alfonso M. Ramos CN: 32 Reaction paper about the documentary film â€Å"Planet Philippines† The documentary film â€Å"Planet Philippines† hosted by Richard Gutierrez was the biggest environmental project of 2009. Planet Philippines took the viewers on a grand and awesome journey into our country’s wilderness sites. They traveled around Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao to examine the diverse Philippine landscape, seascape, and underground terrain. The film began with our daily activities (eating, drinking, and sleeping) and all of us became busy because of these activities, but little did we know that all of us are connected to one environment that even though it seems far, it plays an important role in our lives. Like Richard Gutierrez said â€Å"marami na tayong alam sa siyudad, alamin naman natin ang ating kalikasan†. Their first destination was Alcoy forest located at the heart of Cebu. In this type of environment, we can clearly see that all species are connected to one another. Almost all of it is endemic species which means that they can be found only in our country. We will write a custom essay sample on Planet Philippines specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Planet Philippines specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Planet Philippines specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer On the roof of the forest, the no. of species found in Luzon is far greater than the whole North America. The Philippines is a bird paradise which have almost 200 endemic species. It showcased one of the rare species of bird which is black shama (Copsychus cebuensis), also known as Siloy. The host discussed some of its distinct characteristics and why they have become endangered species. On the forest floor, the frogs like Luzon striped frog (Rana similis), taylor’s frog (Limnonectes hascheanus) and Philippine wrinkled ground frog (Platymantis sierramadrensis) can be found only in Sierra Madre. Mindanao is blessed to have several forest and some of it are pigny forest (trees that are relatively small). Example is the Almasiga tree which is relatively short and small but already lived for 100 years. If the trees were short in the forest, therefore its organisms are also small. Hamiguitan  Rat (Batomys hamiguitan) is one of it. This was discovered only 5 years ago. Philippines have a vast number of forest and because of this, new species are discovered every year. There are many other forests showed in the movie and the overall rate of this in our country is 3%. This is due to the fact that deforestation reduces greatly the no. of forests in the Philippines and according to studies; this is the second factor that causes Global Warming. Their next destination was the ocean wherein they dived into the one of the marine biodiversity to see how beautiful it is in the sea. The ocean is so vast and due to that it is somewhat impossible to count all the species living in it. Species of sea slugs like Nudibranch (Chromodoris conchyliata) were discovered last year. Trumpet Fish (Aulostomus maculates) and Bach Fish were also featured. The corals which are considered to be the rainforest of the ocean are the home of 25% of the fishes globally. It is also the breeding site of the fishes. Oceans are the channel of life from the smallest organisms (planktons, sea horse) up to largest one (manta ray, sharks and whales). The Thresher Shark (Alopias vulpinus), one of the most fierce organism in the ocean can be found greatly in Malapascua, Cebu. As the years passed, the number of living organisms in the oceans are reduced greatly, maybe this is because of over hunting, dynamite fishing, muro ami, pollution and global warming. In the sea, balance is important like yin and yang. Planktons were eaten by small fishes (clown fish, milkfish etc), small fishes were eaten by large fish (like dolphins) and this large fishes were eaten by larger and more massive fishes (whales and sharks). That is the reason if a small group of species were extinct it will greatly affect the equilibrium of the ecosystem. There are still some marine sites that are free from the hands of abusive humans. Like in Brgy, Lukatan located at Mindanao, home of Mandaya tribe and part of the MILF territory. There is only one rule in this place, over hunting of fish is prohibited. Species like Lion Fish (Pterois volitans), Sea Snake  (Laticauda colubrina) and Hox’s Bill Sea Turtle are banded for capturing because they are enlisted on the â€Å"red list† which means that they are prone to extinction. One case was the member of the tribed, he killed a turtle and as a result, the tribe leaders imprisoned him. Do we ever wonder how caves were built? The answer is simple, this is due to the continuous flowing and crashing of sea waves to a rocky place which resulted to form a depression on the rocks and later on, become caves. The cave sites were the next destination of the team. Philippines alone have thousands of caves and half of it is not yet found which means the discovery of new and endemic species is possible. Before human touched the caves, it has a life on its own hundred years ago. Even though the formation of plants is impossible in the caves, there are still some animals making the caves as their habitat. These species like bats can be found all over the place especially on the roof of the caves and at night they go out of the caves to search food. After eating, these bats defecate and the feces they excrete serve as a food for other organisms (guano and cockroaches). These small organisms can be eaten by a Whip scorpion (Acanthrophrynus coronatus) in order to survive. Their distinct characteristic compared to other species is that they don’t have venom in their tail. There is one chamber in the cave wherein reticulated phyton (Python reticulatus) can be found. This type of snake can be found only in the Philippines. Last year I was able to witness how beautiful it is in the cave, we went to the Underground Cave in Palawan and I saw various species like the film featured. There are so many plants and animals species in the Philippines, because of that our country was termed as the mega biodiversity country. But while the Philippines boasts of many marvels, it is also considered one of the hottest of so-called biodiversity hotspots, areas in the world where species decline and habitat loss are at alarming levels. A list from the International Union of the Conservation of Nature tells that the Philippines have 641 species that are critically endangered of plants and animals. Best representative for this is the Monkey Eating Eagle or Philippine Eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi). The king of the birds is critically endangered and may extinct for the years to come. Main reasons are deforestation and capturing them for invalid purposes. Our country is almost 4 billion years old and our existence is only 200 000 year but our contribution is large enough that change our mother earth. As the population increased our needs also increase. And these needs came from our nature. The forest was converted to cropland and subdivisions. Freshwater rate decreases due to the spoilage use of homes and factories. There is also unending mining on the mountains. The energy used to move various industries came from the fossil fuels that heat up our country. Compared to the other countries we have less usage of fossil fuels but every year we return 11. 4 billion tons of carbon dioxide in our environment because of deforestation. The loss of forest every year is equal to the size of Cavite and these forests are the habitat of thousands of species. There are laws and regulations on conserving biodiversity like R. A. No. 147 (An act providing for the conservation and protection of wildlife resources and their habitats, appropriating funds therefore and for other purposes). People who do not follow this will be dealt accordingly. Planet Philippines points to the connections between human activities and the state of the environment, and provides practical solutions on how we can help save what is left. It is an important, must-s ee television event. I commend the bravery of the film for awakening the humans of the present condition of the Philippines, not only our country but the whole world. With the help of experienced team they delivered the film briefly but comprehensively. This is another great documentary of GMA. I hope that all of us realize the importance of biodiversity and if we not act, all hope is lost. So let us contribute in our own little way to save mother earth and the species especially the endangered ones. Let us pick up the pieces of paper and wrappers of candy every time we saw one. Switch off the lights, electric fans and televisions when not in use. There are many things that we can do to save our only home so let us act now saying â€Å"Yes, we can! †

Mexican Constitution Essays - Constitution, Freedom Of Assembly

Mexican Constitution The Mexican constitution was adopted in 1917. Previous versions of the Mexican constitution were drafted or proposed, and one laid out the basic structure (1857). This was during conflict and social upheaval in the nation. The Mexican constitution was influenced by both Spanish law, and the United States constitution. The most striking statements of the constitution are that there is freedom of religion but that another article negates any idea of separation of church and state. Also, it says that anyone arrested is guilty until proven innocent, the opposite of that in the United States. Like the constitution of the U.S. however, there are certain guaranteed freedoms. Some of these are: the right to expression, the right to information, freedom of writing and publishing, the right to petition peacefully, the right of assembly, the right to bear arms, and many others. The constitution of Mexico is a lot like ours because it contains many of the same freedoms. It is probably similar because the Mexican constitution was highly influenced, and based on that of the United States. However, some parts are different. Such as all people are guilty until proven innocent, whereas in the United States all people are innocent until proven guilty. The political structure is that like the U.S. which is centered around three traditional branches of government. These three branches are the president, the legislature, and the courts. Policy making is handled by the executive branch. Although the government is supposed to have the same power as the states, like in the U.S., the Mexican government actually has much more power than the states. Government Essays

Canning and the Eastern Question Essay Example

Canning and the Eastern Question Essay Example Canning and the Eastern Question Essay Canning and the Eastern Question Essay Essay Topic: History In 1822 Castlereagh committed suicide and George Canning was appointed as the new British Foreign Secretary, a position he kept until his death in 1827. Castlereagh as Foreign Secretary had played a leading role in the defeat of Napoleon and was very keen to use the Congress System to restore peace in Europe; Canning however was more hostile to the Congress System as he believed British interests lay outside Europe and he had no good relationship with the other European statesmen. By his death in 1827 he had played a major role in the death of the Congress System but had also managed to successfully maintain British interests. At this time the Ottoman Empire was very large containing South Eastern Europe and parts of Asia and North Africa. However as it was such a huge ramshackle of different nationalities and religions in order for it to be governed effectively it needed a strong leadership from Constantinople, which the Turkish Sultan of this time couldnt offer, since 1815 the Ottoman Empire had been in decline. (The Ottoman Empire) After Frances defeat previously Russia was now considered the biggest threat to the balance of power in Europe. It had great military power due to the seemingly unlimited supply of peasant conscripts to its armed services. The weak Ottoman Empire was always being watched by Russia who was continuously pushing its boundaries Southwards towards Constantinople and the Straits. Russia was hoping to gain land and access through the Black Sea into the Mediterranean. Britain feared that if this occurred Russia would be able to threaten British trade and naval dominance in that area and also its important trade routes to India. Britain was not committed to maintaining the Empire but did not want to see it fall to Russia, however it was in the best interests for Austria to strengthen the Ottoman Empire as it was a useful buffer against Russian expansion and Austria had no designs on the land itself. France also wanted to see the Ottoman Empire preserved as it had long standing political and commercial links with Turkey and hoped to extend its influence over the area via the Pasha of Egypt, Mehmet Ali. At the Congress of Vienna the major European powers had restored monarchies to every European country but the 19th Century has been labelled The Age of Nationalism as individual countries wanted the right to look after their own interests free from the influence of a foreign power. The old monarchical powers such as Austria and Russia were terrified of revolution and the European powers all had a solid stance to crush any revolts. However the Greek uprising of 1822 against the Ottoman Empire was different. The deeply religious Russians were concerned with their fellow Orthodox Christians fighting to free themselves from Muslim rule. It seemed likely that Russia would become involved in this conflict as the Russians saw themselves as the unofficial guardians of the Orthodox religion and also relations between the Ottoman Empire and Russia were already poor as the Russians had been left feeling aggrieved after the Ottomans pulled out of the 1812 Bucharest Agreement. There was also a lot of sympathy for the Greek Revolution in Britain, especially throughout the educated elite; there were many volunteers who went there to fight for the Greeks such as Lord Byron the romantic poet who eventually died for the cause. The Greeks had even sent a deputation to Britain begging for help. The sympathy increased for the Greeks when the Turks conducted a massacre of Greek Orthodox Christians and murdered the Patriarch of Constantinople on Easter Sunday in 1821. In April 1821 the Greeks of Morea killed thousands of the local Turks and the Turks then retaliated with even worse horrors. This caused another surge in European public sympathy and in 1823 Canning recognized the Greeks as Co-belligerents, which meant he recognised Greeks right to take up arms against an unpopular Turkish regime. This sympathy for the Greeks however, was strongest in Russia, where it was going to be hard for the government to ignore such public feeling. The Tsar Alexander I initially wanted to intervene but Metternich, who arguing against supporting Nationalistic causes on the grounds that all revolutions must be prevented and that they were all centred from Paris, dissuaded him. However in December 1825 Tsar Alexander I died and the new Tsar, Nicholas I was ready for immediate intervention with or without international cooperation. He wanted to establish himself quickly in the eyes of his people and Europe and to avenge atrocities against Greek Orthodox Christians; also weakening the Turkish Empire would bring benefits to Russia. Canning now had to make sure the Russians didnt gain too much in this area. Turkey needed help to fight the Greek revolt and turned to Mehmet Ali, who held land in Egypt directly as a favour from the Turkish Sultan and was therefore obliged to help the Sultan if his interest were threatened. Between 1826 and 1827 an Egyptian army, under Mehmet Alis son Ibrahim Pasha, gained the upper hand over the Greek rebels. Canning tried to prevent Russia entering a war by sending Wellington to St Petersburg to offer solving the dispute by mediation to the new Tsar. Canning decided Britain must act to: * Prevent Turkey being weakened too much as it was a useful buffer against Russian expansion in the Balkans. * Make sure Russia didnt make too much advantage e. g. possession of Constantinople He may also have intervened to break up the Congress System, which he despised; he knew Anglo Russian cooperation would infuriate Metternich. The outcome was the Protocol of St Petersburg of April 1926 with which the British and the Russians offered mediation to the Turks as long as the Greeks retained some form of self-government. Britain, Russia and France confirmed this by attending the July 1827 Treaty of London where they guaranteed Greek self-government by force if necessary and a joint nav al expedition set out for Greece. Canning was now under great pressure as the Austrians and Prussians objected to this support of revolution and the Turks were refusing to sign the treaty. In August 1827 Canning died, probably brought on by overwork. Meanwhile the joint 27-ship fleet was blockading the Turkish-Egyptian fleet of 81 ships in the Greek, Navarino Bay. Though under orders to avoid hostilities, the British Admiral Codrington decided to force the issue by sailing into the bay. The Turks opened fire and a full-scale battle developed lasting four hours. It was a disaster for the Turks and their allies; 61 ships and about 4000 men were lost in October 1827. There was no prospect of the Turks recapturing Greece whose independence was recognised in 1830 and her frontiers were decided in 1832. In the end Cannings work in the Near East had mixed success. He had helped to achieve a completely independent Greece however his wider aim of limiting Russian gains by cooperation with her had been ruined by Wellington who failed to grasp Cannings intentions.

Republic Government Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Republic Government - Essay Example The great French Revolution, although short-term, roused a new spirit of independence in Europeans. Later, in the 19th century, many countries outside Europe attained independence through continuous struggle; but the major turn out came after the 2nd World War, of which most of the countries developed a trend away from democracy. (Carey, 2007) Even though colonial life has almost ended, some parts of the world are still fighting for a proper government according to their own views. Two of these major parts are Palestine and Kashmir. What's ironical is that countries involved in these disputes are republics themselves; but look at the years of struggle these areas have gone through. Theoretically, the United States is a democratic republic nation where people exercise control over their rulers through elections and lobbying; but since implementation of the new constitution, the government has been facing extensive difficulties. Financial problem was the main worry of the new government. They were in huge debt due to the Revolutionary War, which was a threat to their economy. The need for roads and bridges was inevitable, but they could not be afforded. Enforcing new taxes was also a problem, which lead to the Whiskey Rebellion.

IT Security. Epworth Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

IT Security. Epworth - Assignment Example The storage of information is at times prone to intrusion from the foes. It is at this point that the persons using the database have to ensure that there is utmost security of the stored information. Other trends in IT include such things as the use of wireless LANS (Stewart, Tittel and Chapple, 2011). This is one of the developments that are in IT. IT comprises of many contentious issues like the use of suites of security technology, reputation risk, online awareness and the wireless LAN technology. Task1 (Reputational risk) The chief officer for security at Epworth is the person concerned with the security of the firm’s information stored in the database. His claims that the system is robust against reputational risk are a heap of lies. This is because the database of the Epworth organization is accessible to any web server. The web server can directly access the web where the health care firm stores information concerning to the employees and the patients. This direct access is the one that makes me defy the fact that the reputation of the patients is safe. Secretive patient’s information storage occurs in the database (Honey, 2009). Therefore, the security officer’s remarks are not true. Current observations show that the fact that the database is accessible to all employees of the Epworth health care .This accessibility is the key to hacking of necessary information concerning the organization (Neef, 2003). ... An IBM analyst has recommended to Epworth a suite of security technologies aimed at database compromise and data loss prevention at a cost of $40,000 per year. This would ensure that the database information is free from falling into the hands of the enemy. Therefore, it would be beneficial to implement the suite because of different reasons. One of the reasons is the fact that the database information is exceedingly necessary to any firm. The cost of installing the prevention mechanisms may be high but the benefits are many (CDTM, 2007). Epworth would have the assurance that the security of information pertaining to their patients and workers is safe. Purchasing a licensed copy of the security suite is also particular because the firms can assure their patients that their details are safe. The other reason as to why this is necessary is that the cost of replacing the lost information would be more than the cost of installing the security kit (Whitman and Mattord, 2010). The installa tion of database security is necessary because the process of coming up with new details about patients is costly. Contacting and informing the patients about their account numbers and providing new cards would be exceedingly tedious. The last reason for the installation would be the fact that database compromise is up to 25%. Task 3 (online training of employees) If Epworth were to bestow me with the task of conducting online employee awareness, this would be a go ahead for the firm. On-line employee awareness and training course for safeguarding sensitive patient information is a practice that any firm requires. This would ensure that the employees are aware of the requirements

E-Business and e-Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

E-Business and e-Marketing - Essay Example The whole world has become a small place because of internet. Everyone can have all the information pertaining to any field or subject using internet. There have been significant advancements in technology over the years and it had a significant impact and changes on the people's way of leaving. It has brought about changes in the way people access different kinds of information online and the ways in which they communicate with each other. World Wide Web is also having its significant impact on the ways through which businesses are now being conducted in different organisations all over the world. The term e-business can be referred to as the utilisation of internet technology for the improvement in efficiency of business processes conducted by various organisations. It has also resulted in the establishments of different new kinds of business models. E-Business is believed to have emerged during the mid 1990s (Maruyama). It was mostly concerned about bringing enterprise systems tha t existed then to the internet audience in general through internet or World Wide Web. E-Business now can be found at the mainstream of most of the organisations. E-Business helps in the improvement of business performances through the use of information technology and thereby facilitates connection between customers and suppliers at every step in the value chain. Hence it could result in significant shift or changes in the field of technology, business and the society as a whole along with the changes in interactions between them. As regards technology, information technology has been revolutionised over the past years. It has its impact in almost all the economic sectors and in every sphere of our lives. The processing power relative to the digital technologies is expected to have a rapid increase because of decline in the cost associated with the advancements of technology in future (The Levin Institute). As a result of new technological advancements, most of the business transac tions are expected to be done over internet which would lead to the reduction in the transaction costs as well. The job structure is also expected to change and more people can use internet sitting back at home and performing their business tasks. More and more people would shift towards jobs offered online which could be done at their convenient place and flexible work timings for the employees as well. With the growing expansion of World Wide Web, different new technologies like location-based technologies and radio frequency identification (RFID) are expected to lead to the development of innovative applications resulting in the evolution of networks which can be termed as "Internet of Things" (OECD). In the longer run, small sized wireless sensor devices which are embedded in different objects, facilities and equipments are most likely to get integrated with internet with the help of wireless networks. This would enable interconnectivity anytime and anywhere. The future capaciti es and uses of technologies which bridge the virtual worlds with the physical world are supposed to result in significant societal changes as well as bring about increased economic benefits. Economic activity is becoming faster, cheaper and efficient as a result of World Wide Web.

Properties of Some Ayurvedic Bhasmas

Properties of Some Ayurvedic Bhasmas Investigation of Structure, Microbiological and Cytotoxic Properties of Some Ayurvedic Bhasmas Introduction Ayurveda is the traditional Hindu medicine system practiced extensively in South Asia. In Sanskrit, the word Ayurveda is basically made of two components, Ayush life and Veda science and knowledge. This states clearly that science of life is Ayurveda. From ancient period Ayurvedic medicine is in use with the objectives: i) to enhance health status physically, mentally and spiritually free of illness and ii) to cure disease with the help of natural diet, medicine. In ancient period if people get sick and injured there was a trend of use of medicine which is also known as folk medicine. Use of Bhasmas as Ayurvedic medicine has been known from as an alternative medicine. Use of traditional medicine includes Ayurveda, Ancient Iraninan, Korean and African medicine. But recently WHO has noticed that use of these medicines in inappropriate way may give some negative and toxic results. And research work is to be done for its safety and ascertinity. These days microorganisms are common org anisms for causing disease (Shubha Hiremath, 2010). Some of them can be cured with daily hygienic processes but most of them can be removed and recovered with the use of medicines. Ayurveda is the traditional Hindu medicine system practiced extensively in South Asia. Ayurvedic medicine has wide range of composition, which also includes Bhasmas. Literally, Bhasma is something that is obtained from the process of calcination. Generally, calcination and incineration of any gem or metal substance is performed to prepare such formulations and used in any medicinal purpose as Ayurvedic medicine (Kumar Pal, 2015). The Bhasmas are prepared from metals like gold, silver, iron, lead, mercury and arsenic and so on (see Tables 1 and 2). Metal constituent are supposed to have positive impact to human health through Ayurvedic perspective. However, in modern synthetic medicine heavy metal are considered toxic. The objective of this study is to test the impacts of these drugs on growth of microorganism. Lead, mercury and arsenic is considered as the harmful compound that may lead to different kinds of disease especially cancer (Patra, Bhattacharya, Mukhopadhyay, Mukherjee, 2010). The aim in this work is to analyze the selected Bhasma drugs with respect to their structure, perform their antimicrobial susceptibility tests and also to analyze the cytotoxic effect towards the cell lines. Furthermore, if there is any antimicrobial and cytotoxic behavior of the drugs, the attempts will be made to answer the following questions: Is the given Bhasmas effect related to the presence of heavy metal compound? Is the effect the result of other materials that has been added for the preparation of that Ayurvedic Bhasma? Table 1. Some of the Bhasmas intended to be studied in the proposed work S. No. Name of Bhasma Content (metal) 1 Parad Mercury 2 Hartal Arsenic 3 Manoshila Arsenic 4 Naag Lead 5 Shisak Lead 6 Kajjali Mercury 7 Ras sindur Mercury 8 Kajjali Mercury 9 Jasada Zinc 10 Loha Iron 11 Rajat Silver 12 Sworna Gold Tabl 2: Some Bhasmas that are produced by calcination of corresponding mineral compounds S. No. Name Source 1 Coury Cowry shell 2 Abraka Mica 3 Muga Coral 4 Sankha Conch shell 5 Sipi Oyster shell 6 Moti Pearl shell Ayurveda is an ancient Indian system of medicine dating back to 5000BC. Literally the science of life, it uses animal, plant, mineral and metal based medicines to cure diseases. (Barve, Mashru, Jagtap, Pargiri, Prajapati, 2011) (Patwardhan Mashelkar, 2009) A part of Ayurveda called Rasasatra is concerned with drugs of the metal-mineral origin, their processing technique, properties and therapeutic applications (Sarkar, Das, Prajapati, 2010). In Ayurveda, the drugs with mineral origin are considered more effective than those of animal and plant origin. Generally, metal minerals in the original form are toxic, non-absorbable and dont have medicinal significance. Therefore, are transformed by various standard protocols before being used as drug. Pharmaceuticals with the metal minerals origin are called Bhasmas. Bhasmas is a calcined powder of mineral, metal, gems (Sangale, Suryawanshi, Chikate, Khot, 2014). Sworna (Gold) Bhasmas, Rajata (Silver) Bhasmas, Tamra (Copper) Bhasma, Loha (Iron) Bhasmas, Jasada (Zinc) Bhasmas and ashes of the minerals like Caury (cowry shells), Muga (corals), Sankha (conch shell), Sipi (oyster shell) and others have been extensively used as Bhasmas in Ayurvedic medicine (Adhikari, 2014) (Krishnamachary, et al., 2012) (Sarkar, Das, Prajapati, 2010) (Wadekar, Rode, Bendale, Patil, Prabhune, 2005). The importance of the proper dose and way of administration of Ayurvedic drugs has been studied. It has been found that improper application of the Bhasmas lead to the death of the patients. The death is due to the accumulation of the heavy metals in the soft cells (Sarkar, Das, Prajapati, 2010) (Kapoor, 2010). However, heavy metals are drugs if they are supplied within recommended limits on their labels for plant and animal. Preparation methods determine the therapeutic efficiency as well as level of toxicity of the Bhasmas (Nagarajan, Rajan, Krishnan, Sethuraman, 2014). Formulation of Bhasmas based on standard protocol reveals nanostructured morphology. These metallic nanoparticles are taken along with milk, butter, honey, ghee which eliminate their harmful effects and intensify their biocompatibility (Formulation, 2014). Jasada Bhasma has been used for treatment of diabetes, arthritis and tuberculosis. Rajata Bhasma is used to cure muscles wasting, brain diseases and nervous disorder. Similarly, Sworna Bhasma is used for arthritis and rheumatoid (Adhikari, 2014) (Patwardhan Mashelkar, 2009). These are the ancient formulation of the metal and minerals based drugs in Ayurveda. In modern medicine, the trend of the using the metal nanoparticle is increasing for curing diseases. Modern nanoparticles through a several chemical modifications are used in the preparation of the nanodrugs. Recent trend on modern medicine shows that nanoparticles from gold, silver, iron, zinc can be used against several chronic diseases. Gold nanoparticles have high therapeu tic potential to fight against cancer and act as drug delivery vehicles (Khan, Vishakante, Siddaramaiah, 2013) (Dobrovolskaia McNeil, 2007) (Patra, Bhattacharya, Mukhopadhyay, Mukherjee, 2010). Therefore, the systematic studies of the many Bhasmas are still behind the horizon. Such Bhasmas may have potential for higher therapeutic values for curing chronic diseases. So, to investigate the science behind the different Ayurvedic Bhasmas, in particular with respect to their structiure-properties correlations, and their medicinal values will be the topic of the proposed project. The proposed research will encompass different interesting questions which will be attempted to solve in the course of the study. What is the physico-chemical and microscopic structure of the given Bhama? Is it a kind of nanomedicine with respect to its structure? What is the real chemical compositions? How do Bhasmas differ with respect to their microbiological effects on the human body? Will the Bhasma show significant cytotoxic effect only towards diseased cells? How will the normal cell lines respond? Can a correlation be established between the structure and properties of the Bhasmas? Although heavy metals have proved poisonous effects and have a predominantly unfavorable reputation in the modern scientific society, these have been used as pharmaceutical agents since first century B.C. Traditional literature like Rasatarangini, Charaksamita, Rasratnasammuchaya compiled the processing, manufacturing and therapeutic application of heavy metal containing drugs. Different studies show that formulation with heavy metal has toxic effect. The toxicity level depends upon various factors such as processing of raw materials, method and amount of consumption. Heavy metals with nanoscopic structure are generally absorbable inside cell. Recent trend also shows that nanoparticles of gold, arsenic, silver have pharmaceutical potentiality. Thats why well documented study on Bhasmas prepared from heavy metals is needed for their appropriate use as well as for the proper understanding of their structure-properties relationships. Preliminary works have been performed in a variety of Ayurvedic drugs including some drugs comprising Arsenic compounds (Harital) by the research group comprising the some of these members of the present consortium (Panta, Bhandari and Lamsal, and Adhikari 2017). Microscopic, spectroscopic and antibacterial tests were performed on some of the drugs. The compounds exhibited quite strong antibacterial activities again gram positive and gram negative bacteria. Nanomechanical aspects of the Bhamsa drugs were also review some time ago to find the parallel between modern nanomedicine and ancient ayurvedic Bhasma (Adhikari, 2014). Thus, there is a sufficient background information and nalaytical skill in the research group to perform successfully the proposed research works. The proposed work is aimed at the investigation of physico-chemical structure as well as microbiological and cytotoxic properties of different Bhasmas. To elucidate the composition and structure of Bhasma. To see the positive effect of components, present in Bhasma. To study the toxicity of Bhasma on microorganisms and cell lines. To bridge the gap between modern medicine and traditional medicine practice. The research will begin with detail literature survey to eliminate the possibility of duplication and to determine possibility of conflict of interest. The commercial Bhasma will be collected and sample preparation will be done in accordance to the availability of Bhasma in the market while strictly following the procedure described in the Ayurvedic books. Pertinent physical and chemical properties will be studied and the sample will be sent for characterization. X-Ray Diffraction, Optical Microscopy, Electron Microscopy and Spectroscopic Analysis will be performed. After characterization, based on the composition, the proper solvent for the drugs to enter the cell will be selected. Biological assay will then be carried out according to standard protocol. The assays include anti-microbial, cytotoxicity and antidiabetic. The obtained results of all above tests will be compile and analyzed manually or using computer software wherever applicable. The report will then be prepared. The ab ove process is illustrated in the flowchart below. The research plan including the anylytical procedure is depicted in Scheme 1. Scheme 1: Flowsheet depicting the analytical and research plan for the proposed work         Ã‚   It has been proved by earlier studies that the Bhasmas prepared after using standard protocol should reveal nanoparticles which are thus expected to show anti-microbial activity against pathogenic bacteria and fungi. It is the topic to explorer the opportunities that the Bhasmas might exhibit pharmaceutical potentiality against cancer, diabetic and HIV/ AIDS. This study is expected to deliver the following outcome after completion of the works. Provide necessary scientific foundation for structure and composition of the Bhasmas. This study may be able to clarify the issue of contradiction related to the statement telling Ayurvedic formulations with heavy metals are toxic to health. The study will deliver the structure-antibacterial properties correlations of very important traditional medicinal practice of the country. Limitations This study does not cover any Ayurvedic formulation based on herbs and animals. This research does not include detail mechanism of action of the Bhasmas on tested parameters. This work does not associate in any way to the psychological, psychiatric and social impacts that might arrive after the use of Bhasmas. Delimitations This project will bring Ayurveda from supplemental medicine to main stream treatment practice. This work may change the notion that heavy metals in all form are detrimental to health. The facilities available in the laboratory in the REACST will be primarily sufficient for performing major part of the study. Some of the samples have to be sent to other laboratories. This study associates with a variety of people who have been working with Bhasmas as family business for many generations. The result of this work, if contradicting with their practices, might affect their livelihood. The formulation of Bhasmas will be done in isolated condition using standard protocol and also focus to minimize metal hazards during study. This project does not incorporate all the aspects of heavy metals impact in body. Thus, any action based solely on this work might cause on foreseen effects. S.N Task to be done Tentative time 1 Literature review 8 weeks 2 Chemical and instrument collection 4 weeks 3 Commercial sample collection 4 weeks 4 Sample preparation 16 weeks 5 Characterization 16 weeks 6 Biological Assay Antimicrobial test 4 weeks Cytotoxicity (Anti-cancer) 6 weeks Anti-diabetic 10 weeks 7 Data Analysis 8 weeks 8 Preparation of initial draft of report 8 weeks 9 Finalization of report 12 weeks Total Time 96 weeks = 1 year 10 month Estimated Budget S. No. Title Amount (Rs.) 1. Chemical Formulation Rs. 30,000/- Antimicrobial test Rs. 30,000/- Cytotoxicity test Rs. 40,000/- Antidiabetics test Rs. 40,000/- 2. Instruments Rs. 1,50,000/- 3. Commercial Sample Rs. 10,000/- 4. Transportation and Courier for Characterization Rs. 40,000/- 5. Stationary and Logistics Rs. 30,000/- 6. Miscellaneous (printing, binding, communications etc.) Rs. 20,000/- 7. Laboratory chemicals Rs. 60,000/- Total Rs. 4,50,000/- Today nano-medicine is emerging as new revolution worldwide and has several promises. The exploration of nano-formulations in medical field has made us to dream of several opportunities. The study of the Bhasmas will help to gain those goals. There is higher chance of innovation of new drugs by mixing the indigenous knowledge with modern technology of drug discovery and delivery. These efforts on Bhasmas are directed toward finding solution to crucial issues of infectious disease and in particular tackling with more vulnerability the comeback of diabetics, HIV/AIDS and the devastating spread of cancer in world. However, more effort has to be done to uplift the potentiality of Bhasmas to that of modern nanodrugs. More research is desirable which explore the co-relation between structural nature and mechanism associated with their therapeutic activity. This study can provide pathway to enhance the use of traditional Ayurvedic medicine and helps to preserve the traditional knowledge. References       Adhikari, R. (2014). Ayurvedic Bhasmas: Overview on Nanomaterialistic Aspects, Applications, and Perspectives. Infectious Diseases and Nanomedicine I, 23-32. doi:10.1007/978-81-322-1777-0_3 Barve, M., Mashru, M., Jagtap, C., Pargiri, B. J., Prajapati, P. K. (2011). Therapuetic potentials of metals in ancient India: A review through Charaka Samhita. Journal of Ayurveda and Intregative Medicine, 2(2), 55-63. Retrieved from http://imsear.hellis.org/handle/123456789/172982 Dobrovolskaia, M. A., McNeil, S. E. (2007). Immunological properties of engineered nanomaterials. Nature nanotechnology, 2(8), 469-478. doi:10.1038/nnano.2007.223 Formulation, c. a.-m. (2014). Rasheed, Arun; Naik, Madhu; Haneefa, Kotappadath Pillanayil Mohammed; Kumar, Raveendran Pillai Arun; Azeem, Abdul Kharim. Pak. J. Pharm. Sci, 27(4), 793-800. Retrieved from http://applications.emro.who.int/imemrf/Pak_J_Pharm_Sci/Pak_J_Pharm_Sci_2014_27_4_793_800.pdf Kapoor, R. C. (2010). Some observations on the metal-based preparations in Indian systems of medicine. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 9(3). Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/2248/3544 Khan, M. S., Vishakante, G. D., Siddaramaiah, H. (2013). Gold nanoparticles: a paradigm shift in biomedical applications. Advances in colloid and interface science, 199, 44-58. doi:10.1016/j.cis.2013.06.003 Krishnamachary, B., Rajendran, N., Pemiah, B., Krishnaswamy, S., Krishnan, U. M., Sethuraman, S., Sekar, R. K. (2012). Scientific validation of the different purification steps involved in the preparation of an Indian Ayurvedic medicine, Lauha bhasma. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 142(1), 98-104. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2012.04.021 Kumar Pal, S. (2015). The Ayurvedic Bhasma: The Ancient Science of Nanomedicine. Recent Patents on Nanomedicine, 5(1), 12-18. Nagarajan, S. a., Rajan, K., Krishnan, U., Sethuraman, S. (2014). Scientific insights in the preparation and characterisation of a lead-based naga bhasma. Indian journal of pharmaceutical sciences, 76(1), 38-45. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4007254/ Panta, P, Bhandari, T. R, Lamsal B., and Adhikari, R. unpublished results (2017) Patra, C. R., Bhattacharya, R., Mukhopadhyay, D., Mukherjee, P. (2010). Fabrication of gold nanoparticles for targeted therapy in pancreatic cancer. Advanced drug delivery reviews, 62(3), 346-361. doi:10.1016/j.addr.2009.11.007 Patwardhan, B., Mashelkar, R. A. (2009). Traditional medicine-inspired approaches to drug discovery: Can Ayurveda show the way forward. Drug discovery today, 14(15), 804-811. doi:10.1016/j.drudis.2009.05.009 Sangale, M. D., Suryawanshi, M., Chikate, C., Khot, R. (2014). Comparative studies and analysis of Jasandand Nag bhasma prepared by different Ayurvedic pharmaceuticals. International Journal of Advanced Scientific and Technical Research, 2(4). Retrieved from http://rspublication.com/ijst/2014/april14/29.pdf Sarkar, P. K., Das, S., Prajapati, P. K. (2010). Ancient concept of metal pharmacology based on Ayurvedic literature. Ancient science of life, 29(4), 1-6. Shubha, S. H., Hiremath, R. S. (2010). Evaluation of antimicrobial activity of Rasaka Bhasma. AYU: An International Quarterly Journal of Research in Ayurveda, 31(2), 260-262. Wadekar, M. P., Rode, C. V., Bendale, Y. N., Patil, K. R., Prabhune, A. A. (2005). Preparation and characterization of a copper based Indian traditional drug: Tamra bhasma. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis, 39(5), 951-955. doi:10.1016/j.jpba.2005.06.015 Association to national Priority Ayurvedic drugs are indigenous technology of Nepal. The practice incorporates a wide variety of social groups during the raw material collection, purification, processing, delivery and prescription of medicine. Moreover, the need of raw materials opens door to industrial and entrepreneur investment. The work we have proposed thus can impact a variety of national priority which will be described in detail below Bhasma is found to have significant effect on the cure of tuberculosis. They are also expected to cure diabetes, cancer and other non-communicable diseases. The reduction of these communicable and non-communicable disease is a part of the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG). The formulations studied in our work can play a major role in meeting the SDG as well as in improving the health indicators not covered in SDG but is a common health problem in Nepal such as rheumatic and skin disease [SDG] The production and dissemination of Bhasma is a multi-step process requiring a variety of manpower. It demands unskilled manpower for labor works necessary in all steps, semi-skilled manpower for the production and distribution of medicines as well as skilled manpower like doctors, chemists, administrators to supervise the whole operation. Hence understanding and commercialization of Bhasma can significantly contribute to employ not only local manpower but also help bring back the manpower currently outside Nepal. Bhasma is unquestionably the local intellectual property of Nepal which requires protection before it becomes the victim of modern medicine hegemony and foreign trademark. This work will be a step to the documentation, standardization and recognition of the ancient knowledge which is not yet accepted as a scientific truth. Understanding and patenting the rights in the country will prevent local knowledge from being foreign property. This project is also a step towards proper documentation and preservation of rare and endangered books. Preparation of Bhasma is a traditional example of top-down nanofabrication. Nanoscience and nanotechnology is a burning research field. However, only a handful of work has been done in this field. Government as well as private investors are reluctant to investment on nanoscience. This project can be an invitation to industries as well as academia to focus on nanomaterial synthesis and use to solution of everyday problem.

College: Worth It or Not Essay

â€Å"College is a Waste of Time and Money† by Caroline Bird suggests that a college education is forced upon those who attend. As a student you shouldn’t lack the enthusiasm or motivation or it won’t be what you thought it would be. Bird states that those who think that going to college is a way to prepare for your future job are wrong, for there are students who are successful because of their family background. Bird makes valid points in her essay, but it isn’t all true to say that college wastes a student’s money and time and showing that going to college can benefit you in the end by giving you a well-paid job and having knowledge of new skills. Throughout high-school, students are taught that college is a great route to take. Bird states, â€Å"This is the way it used to be with women, and just as a society had systematically damaged women by insisting that their proper place was in the home, so we may be systematically damaging 18 yr-olds by insisting that their proper place is in college† (p.9). They even have classes now that prepare you for that next big step, like taking AVID classes. AVID is a college readiness system for elementary through high school. AP classes are also available to students in high school. AP stands for advanced placement classes, which have a curriculum that you get when in college. Many may say that it is not worth taking classes like that, but also some may say that it is beneficial even if you don’t go to college or not. It has become â€Å"The thing to do’ says Bird. Going to college has now become something like a popularity contest, where you attend because everyone else is and your parents think it is right. Parents go along with it, not â€Å"thinking of the â€Å"higher† good at all. They send their children to college because they are convinced young people benefit financially from those four years of higher education† (p. 24). Parents are only thinking of the money that will come from spending money on that education. My parents in are complete opposites of all that. They encouraged me to go college so I can better myself as a person. I will be the first, also, to go to college to get my degree in a profession. Students also feel like ‘they are not needed† so they attend college where they can feel like they may become something. Bird argues and tells us that we should force our students to go into college, and according to a study by Leon, 200 of 300 students felt that college education is a waste of money, so forcing them to go may not even work. (p. 18) Bird isn’t in an agreement that college education will help the students to make money in the future: â€Å"if making money is the only goal, college is the dumbest investment you can make† (p. 24). Bird furthers this testimonial by comparing the money that would be spent on education versus money that is put in a bank for interest. Even when the graduates do succeed in having good jobs, there is no evidence that money comes from the college education as college can attract students who have a wealthy family background (p. 31). There are those who just go college to go, but than can take over a family business or something. Then their wealth comes from that. College can open doors to jobs in the areas of teaching, medicine and research though such opportunities are scarce. Bird says that studies show that very often, the work attached to the jobs is totally unrelated to their college education and this is true for architects, nurses, teachers and other professionals (p. 48). So those who go into a profession that is meant to help others, you don’t take what you learned from college into that profession, you learn throughout your working years. This means that college education does not prepare the student for the job market. Bird is convinced that â€Å"college doesn’t make people intelligent, ambitious, happy or liberal. It’s the other way around. Intelligent, ambitious, happy, liberal people are attracted to higher education in the first place† (p. 52). Bird concludes that college education is for students who can afford money and time to read and learn and there must be alternatives provided for youngsters to have a good future. â€Å"College is a Waste of Time and Money† does give valid points in what Bird was trying to argue. College has become more expensive for a few days of school work that may not even help you in the future and students do have the wrong perception on what college is. But a college education does have its upsides. A college education is a journey that everyone, who has the right attitude about education, should take. College prepares a student for being independent by teaching them learning skills that can be used lifelong. The values you learn, leadership and social skills that you can gain, and the character and attitude of a student is enhanced by going to college.

Marketing Survey Form Essay

We are Bachelor of Science in Hotel and Restaurant Management students currently conducting a feasibility study with regard for a proposed foodservice business venture entitled as Silog Express which will offer variety of silog dishes like tapsilog, adsilog, chicksilog, embosilog, porksilog, etc. It will be located in front of Tomas Del Rosario College, San Jose, Balanga City, in partial fulfilment of our course requirement HRMG-413B Feasibility Study with Thesis. Due this, we prepared this questionnaire to gather necessary information which will be very beneficial to our study. May we request you to provide the necessary information for each of the following questions. Rest assured that any details provided will be treated with utmost confidentiality. Thank you very much! -Researchers Name (Optional): ____________________________ ____________ Gender: ________ Address/University/Company: ____________________________ ________ Age: ________ Put a check mark on the space provided for your answer. 1. Where you do usually ate breakfast? ( ) at home ( ) canteen ( ) restaurant/fast food others: ______ 2. Where you do usually ate lunch? ( ) at home ( ) canteen ( ) restaurant/fast food others: ______ 3. Where you do usually ate dinner? ( ) at home ( ) canteen ( ) restaurant/fast food others: ______ 4. How often do you eat at any restaurants/fast foods here in Balanga? ( ) twice a day ( ) daily ( ) weekly ( ) twice a week others: ______ 5. How much is your daily allowance? ( ) Php100 ( ) Php120 ( ) Php150 ( ) Php200 ( ) Php250 others: ______ 6. How much do you usually spent for food when eating in a fast food/restaurant here in Balanga? ( ) Php30-40 ( ) Php40-50 ( ) Php50-60 ( ) Php60-70 ( ) Php70-80 others: 7. Are you familiar with tapsilog, hamsilog, tosilog, chicksilog, porksilog, etc.? ( ) Yes ( ) No 8. Do you eat silog dishes? ( ) Yes ( ) No 9. How often do you eat silogs? ( ) daily ( ) weekly ( ) twice a week ( ) thrice a week others: ____ 10. Have you ever experience dining in a silog food service? ( ) Yes ( ) No 11. Where have you tasted/experienced silogs? ( ) at home ( ) school canteens ( ) fast foods others: ____________ 12. In what meal do you think silog will most be eaten. ( ) breakfast ( ) lunch ( ) merienda ( ) dinner 13. Choose at least 5 of your best choices. ( ) adsilog ( ) bangusilog ( ) burgsilog ( ) chicksilog ( ) cornsilog ( ) daingsilog ( ) embosilog ( ) hamsilog 1 Republic of the Philippines BATAAN PENINSULA STATE UNIVERSITY Main Campus, City of Balanga, Bataan ( ) liemsilog ( ) longsilog ( ) malingsilog ( ) porkbbqsilog ( ) porksilog ( ) sigsilog ( ) specialpares ( ) tapsilog ( ) tosilog ( ) tuyosilog others: __________ 14. Would you like to have a silog food service here in Balanga? ( ) Yes ( ) No 15. Are you in favour of putting up the â€Å"Silog Express†? ( ) Yes ( ) No Thank you very much for spending time answering this questionnaire!

The eNotes Blog Grunt Science of War, Medicine, and the Humans in the Middle of ItAll

Grunt Science of War, Medicine, and the Humans in the Middle of ItAll Mary Roachs Grunt: The Curious Science of Humans at War gives readers a glimpse into the stunning world of military science and medicine. Roach sets the stage with an anecdote about an artillery-grade gun that shoots frozen chickens- aptly named the chicken gun- at aircraft to test if windshields can withstand colliding with birds of flight. She explores how these chicken guns as well as flame-retardant and water-resistant fabrics, zipper-free vests (for snipers, so as not to give away their position), and other military fashions are trying to improve the lives of soldiers while reducing injury and death. Heroism doesnt always happen in a burst of glory. Sometimes small triumphs and large hearts change the course of history. Sometimes a chicken can save a mans life. For military science, however,  death  is a key component for advancements. Not surprising, this means life and death  is a central  theme in  Grunt. Readers learn about human cadavers getting detonated in test explosions, as the subject of comprehensive autopsies, and for providing vital transplant organs. Roach specifically highlights the transplant of male genitalia, paving the way for fascinating legal  discussions such as  does any remaining quantity of donor sperm belong to the donors family? And, if said donor was a soldier, would any resulting offspring be a military beneficiary of things like pensions? Roach, who has described herself as a goober with a flashlight, stumbling into corners and crannies, is an exceptionally clever, congenial writer going into those dark corners where many other writers wont. Other noteworthy works of hers include  Gulp: Adventures on the Alimentary Canal, a book about eating, digestion, and- because why not?- elimination,  and  Stiff: The Curious Lives of Human Cadavers,  exploring the lives of post-mortem bodies.  Michelle Dean at  The Guardian writes that while Roach isnt necessarily an investigative journalist, she still has specialized in tackling the uncomfortable, and at the heart of her every book is her desire to explore the places from which we recoil. In Grunt, Roach gives us a glimpse at several of those uncomfortable topics most unsuitable for the faint of hearts dinner table, such as the aforementioned penis transplants. (This is wholly dependent on your typical table conversations, of course.) She explores other grotesque aspects of military science and medicine: how a urethra can be  constructed from cheek skin, the best kind of underwear to not fuse to your flesh if wounded (silk, interestingly enough), and the maggot treatment- introducing blowfly larvae into a wound for the purpose of debridement. Dont worry. Theres plenty of diarrhea-talk, too. the Navy researcher who comes up with a way to speed the recovery time from travelers’ diarrhea. These things matter when it’s 115 degrees and you’re trying to keep your troops from dehydrating to the point of collapse. There’s no glory in the work. No one wins a medal. And maybe someone should.† Readers will never see their nation’s soldiers in the same way again after taking this tour of stunning (and sometimes sickly) military science and the less-than-talked-about soldier  plights after reading this book.Read the summary of Grunt  with characters, quotes, and  themes.  Were also giving away a copy signed by Mary Roach to one lucky reader: entries are open to U.S. and Canada residents and are  accepted until July 13, 2017, at 9:00 p.m. PST! *Cover image by Benjamin Faust via Unsplash.com.

buy custom Situational Leadership Theory essay

buy custom Situational Leadership Theory essay Effective management is a comprehensive system of measures and techniques, which help the company to survive in the contemporary business world. Leaders strive to have a unique set of skills, tools, and behavioral patterns, which can help the company gain success and continue its development. Obviously, the company always keeps looking for the best solution to the problems faced on the way towards success. In fact, it becomes difficult to accommodate to the environment in contemporary conditions of competition. In order to find a solution to the changeable nature of the companys performance, it is important to apply traditional approach along with a mixture of modern concepts. Situational leadership theories touch the roots of management, which helps companies to deliver high-quality services and products due to effective adherence to the conditions of every situation. The research proves that situational leadership theories formulate the basement, which should become a guide towards success for every manager. Situational leadership is a key aspect in the performance of any company. It is an aspect, which builds an effective management system according to the changeable environment. It enhances the companys ability to accommodate to any situation and apply appropriate system of measures, which will be effective regulators in terms of the changeable environment. It is necessary to learn the details of every situation in order to take a decision, which will help the company solve the problem (Kiechel, 2012). Situations change, and it means that the company needs to apply a new model and regulate leadership styles, which will enhance teamwork and bring the performance to the new level of development. It is necessary to take into consideration conditions of every situation and explore situational leadership styles and their details. As a result, the company gains a flexible system of measures allowing accommodating to the situation and applying the most appropriate set of techniques. In genera l, situational leadership considers that the company can effectively perform in case ofcrisis. Finally, this concept means that the top-management successfully implements the idea of accommodation to the changeable environment. Regardless of the sources of changes, it is necessary to regulate the performance in the internal environment of the company (Quinn Cameron, 1983). Situational leadership not only means that it is necessary during a crisis, implementation of the new policy or any other changes with a direct influence on the performance. There are three main theories of situational leadership: Fiedlers contingency theory, Hersey-Blanchards situational model and Houses path-goal theory. Every company can choose its leadership style, which will help to avoid chaotic decision-making without reasonable arguments. There is no place for panic and pointless decisions, which may harm the companys sustainability (Leidner Elam, 1994). Therefore, it is necessary to choose appropriate theory, which will fit the companys mission, vision, values and nature of performance. Fiedlers contingency theory means that there is no success pattern of effective leadership style. This theory states that every situation requires a leader to apply a different approach towards regulation of any process. The theory claims that one approach can be effective in one situation, but it will be enough effective in another. Fiedler outlined three main elements, which contribute to the outstanding situational control of the leader. According to this theory, a leader should have a detailed task structure, establish reliable relations with subordinates, and have a positioning power. One of the strengths of Fiedlers theory is that it may be easy for a manager to alter conditions of every situation. One of the weaknesses of the theory is that it may become a challenge to change the leadership style according to the long-term of changing the main factors of the theory. Obviously, it is hard to apply the most appropriate leadership style in case of the least favorable situation be cause of the poor factors. Anotheer theory is Hersey-Blanchards situational model takes into account task and relationship behavior a leader should have to produce effective results. Task behavior considers that an effective leader explains to its employees details of the task regarding what to do, how to do, where to do and how long it should take. It means that employees should receive enough instructions from the leader according to the situation. Relationship behavior is another pattern, which considers that a leader uses multiple communications in order to both gather information about situation and regulate it according to the conditions. The pattern means that an effective leader listens to its employees, supports them and provides them with all necessary resources. Maturity is also another element of the theory. It means that a leader is responsible for his/her actions. As long as maturity level is appropriate for the establishment of the leadership style, a leader can apply his/her strategy according to the following styles. Telling, selling, participating, and delegating are the four main leadership styles in this theory. Telling considers that a leader provides clear instructions and specific information to every employee regarding the situation. Selling means that a leader uses a two-way communication approach in order to encourage employees and motivate them to accomplish the task according to the situation. Participating is another style, which means that a leader listens to its employees and takes their points of view in order to take the decision. Finally, delegating means that leaders followers are ready and responsible for taking action (Plunkett, Allen Attner, 2013). The strength of this theory is that it provides one with the diversity of leadership styles. It helps to find the most appropriate leadership style according to the situation and circumstances. The main weakness of this theory is that it takes too long to establish an effective approach towards leadership . It can take much time before the establishment of the most appropriate measures. For this reason, leaders should have enough information before considering one particular theory. Buy custom Situational Leadership Theory essay

Transport Issues in Developing Cities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words - 1

Transport Issues in Developing Cities - Essay Example It addresses the similarity and differences that exist between the transport situation in Lagos being a city from a lesser developed nation and the situation as portrayed by New York and London being cities from the developed nations of the world. Further analysis is presented herein in relation the extent to which logos city might benefit from the experiences of the cities from developed nations that is New York and London. Â  Over the years since 1995 Lagos is city characterized by complexity with a wide range of economic activities taking place. It is the largest urban center in Nigeria. The population of Lagos is approximated to be roughly 17.8 million (Oni 2004, p.35). In most cases when a city is large and as continues to acquire growth and development it becomes more and more complex having increased potential for diverse disruptions especially in relation to the transport network hence the need for the manager of the complexity in an effective manner. In addressing the similarities and differences in transportation in the cities mentioned it is quite crucial to note that the productivity of urban centres is highly dependable on the effectiveness and efficiency of the centre’s system of transportation to facilitate movement of labor, that of consumers as well as freight from one destination to another (National Transport Policy for Nigeria 2003, p.54). In addition, important terminals of t ransportation for instance airports, rail yards, and ports that are located within urban cities are known to be contributing factors leading to transportation problems. Â  There is quite a wide range of similarities that exist between the situation of transport in Lagos and that of New York and London since 1995.

21st Century Changes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

21st Century Changes - Essay Example All these changes account for the ease in the life that the people are mostly looking for in the 21st century. Altogether it is seen that transportation has fairly increased from the previous century because of the affordable rates that have been introduced in the market. Airlines such as JetBlue have taken an initiative and they are using disposable boarding passes so as to decrease their cost. It can be seen that the overall costs of the fares have decreased and even the common people are now able to use these facilities. The use of computers and mobile phones has become much common these days. People living in the third world countries are now able to use internet from their homes because of the long range satellite programs. Altogether these technologies have provided a platform for increased globalization.   Ã‚  The 21st century has also brought financial breakdown for the whole world. It can be witnessed that the booming economy of the countries in the world came to a stop wh en the economies fell and the businesses went bankrupt. The crisis continued for a long time and it is expected that it will go on for more than 15-20 years. Fossil fuels are getting scarce because of their increased usage all around the world. The prices of these fossil fuels are also increasing and this poses a direct risk to the consumers. The prices of general commodities have also increased because of the rise in these prices. The wars have also taken a new curve after the September 11th attack.

WEAK ANTHROPOCENTRIC INTRINSIC VALUE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

WEAK ANTHROPOCENTRIC INTRINSIC VALUE - Essay Example vation made by Hargrove, the subject of discussion that he appears to have failed in, is disputing the concept of subjectivist nonanthropocentric intrinsic value. The theory of subjective nonathropocentric value theory, as presented by J. Baird Callicott observes that nature has no value of its own, unless it is given to it by human beings, since values depend entirely on human judgment (Hargrove, 194). While Hargrove tends to dispute this argument by arguing that nature has its intrinsic value, there is a reason to disagree with his argument, since without the judgment conferred upon nature by human beings to determine its value, there is no way that nature on its own can possess value. In disputing Hargrove’s argument against subjective nonathropocentric value theory, I contend with J. Baird Callicott, that something becomes valuable only because somebody values it (Hargrove, 195). It is apparent that all value depends on the subjective feelings of human observers, and that value will hardly exist in nature, unless it is given to it by human value judgment (Hargrove,

Brave New World Critical Lens Essay Example for Free

Brave New World Critical Lens Essay â€Å"I have freedom,† you say? Do you really? Perhaps, in some ways, you do. But in the end, you’re just another puppet being controlled by invisible strings whether you know it or not. â€Å"Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains,† Jean-Jacques Rousseau once said. In society, man is â€Å"chained† and controlled by the government, by pressure of conforming to the social norms, by wealth and social class, and by one’s desires and emotions. Prior to birth, man is not restricted by such factors but that is merely a fleeting moment as he is slowly exposed to more and more of the world. I agree that â€Å"everywhere [man] is in chains,† but on the contrary, I believe man is already chained from the start—that man is never free. In the novel, Brave New World, by Aldous Huxley, babies are â€Å"decanted† and conditioned to play out their predestined roles in the World State. As early as the embryonic stage, babies-to-be already have their fates determined for them. In addition to conditioning, a drug called soma that induces a false sense of happiness dominates these people’s lives. As long as there is society, there will be shackles. Subjects of the World State were pre-separated into specific caste levels through processes such as the Bokanovsky Process, hypnopaedia, and Pavlovian conditioning. As mere embryos, they were already being trained for their predestined fates. By the time they reached the end of the â€Å"assembly line,† freedom did not exist anymore. They were enslaved to society. They were conditioned to strictly love and enjoy the aspects of their own castes and dislike the aspects of other castes. â€Å"We also predestine and condition. We decant our babies as socialized human beings, as Alphas or Epsilons, as future sewage workers†¦ (13)† stated the Director of Hatcheries matter-of-factly. How can man be born—or in this case, decanted ¬Ã¢â‚¬â€free if he can’t even make his own major life decisions or think for himself? Aside from conditioning, World State citizens so easily obeyed the government because they lived in such a â€Å"perfect† world that there just wasn’t anything to complain about. Generally, they didn’t have any problems in regards to sickness, death, desires, old age, passion, relationships and other issues that were often associated with an â€Å"unstable† society. â€Å"People are happy; they get what they want, and they never want what they can’t get.  (220)† If anything â€Å"bad† happened, all they had to do was take a tablet. â€Å"And do remember that a gramme is better than a damn. (55)† The World State government kept their people in â€Å"bottles.† â€Å"’Each one of us, of course†¦goes through life inside a bottle,’ stated Mustapha Mond. (222-223)† The government expected everyone to act according to the standard of infantile behavior—of simple satisfaction, ignorance, and lack of self-restraint and they condemned anyone who acted otherwise. Citizens of the society were encouraged to take soma when distressed and attend social events and activities and so on. It was through such ways that the people were kept distracted and obliviously controlled. These â€Å"socialized human beings† were so ignorant of the shackles around their limbs that they didn’t even try or think to take them off. When a man is born with chains—metaphorically speaking, of course—he is unaware of them. And if he is unaware of them, then there is no way for him to escape them. Such is the case with the people of the World State. They are conditioned to accept and even enjoy whatever path that is laid out in front of them. In this illusion of a perfect world, everyone is happy and without a care as the government does all the thinking for them. Ultimately, people of the World State are permanently trapped in a stage of â€Å"infancy†Ã¢â‚¬â€even upon their deathbeds.

Emily Dickinson :: essays research papers

Emily Dickinson is one of the most well known poets of her time. Though her life was outwardly uneventful, what went on inside her house behind closed doors is unbelievable. After her father died she met Reverend Charles Wadsworth. She soon came to regard him as one of her most trusted friends, and she created in his image the “lover'; whom she was never to know except in her imagination. It is also said that it was around 1812 when he was removed to San Fransico that she began her withdrawal from society. During this time she began to write many of her poems. She wrote mainly in private, guarding all of her poems from all but a few select friends. She did not write for fame, but instead as a way of expressing her feelings. In her lifetime only six of her poems were even printed; none of which had her consent. It was not until her death of Brights Disease in May of 1862, that many of her poems were even read (Chelsea House of Library Criticism 2837). Thus proving that the analy sis on Emily Dickinson’s poetry is some of the most emotionally felt works of the nineteenth century.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Miss Dickinson is often compared with other poets and writers, but “like Shakespeare, Miss Dickinson is without opinions'; (Tate 86). “Her verses and technical license often seem mysterious and can confuse critics, but after all is said, it is realized that like most poets Miss Dickinson is no more mysterious than a banker. It is said that Miss Dickinson’s life was starved and unfulfilled and yet all pity is misdirected. She lived one of the richest and deepest lives ever on this continent. It was her own conscious choice to deliberately withdraw from society into her upstairs room…'; (Tate 83). She kept to “only a few select friends and the storm, wind, wild March sky, sunsets, dawns, birds, bees, and butterflies were sufficient companionship for Miss Dickinson'; (Loomis 79). She dealt with a lot both physically and psychologically and in the end she still came out on the top. So as Allen Tate best said it “in her own historica l setting Miss Dickinson is nevertheless remarkable and special'; (82).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Thomas Higginson said that “the main quality of her poems is that of extraordinary grasp and insight, uttered with an uneven vigor, which was all her own'; (78).

Vbnm

AMERICAN CULTURE Visual and performing arts 3. Arts and letters The arts, more than other features of culture, provide avenues for the expression of imagination and personal vision. They offer a range of emotional and intellectual pleasures to consumers of art and are an important way in which a culture represents itself. There has long been a Western tradition distinguishing those arts that appeal to the multitude, such as popular music, from those—such as classical orchestral music—normally available to the elite of learning and taste.Popular art forms are usually seen as more representative American products. In the United States in the recent past, there has been a blending of popular and elite art forms, as all the arts experienced a period of remarkable cross-fertilization. Because popular art forms are so widely distributed, arts of all kinds have prospered. The arts in the United States express the many faces and the enormous creative range of the American peopl e. Especially since World War II, American innovations and the immense energy displayed in literature, dance, and music have made American cultural works world famous.Arts in the United States have become internationally prominent in ways that are unparalleled in history. American art forms during the second half of the 20th century often defined the styles and qualities that the rest of the world emulated. At the end of the 20th century, American art was considered equal in quality and vitality to art produced in the rest of the world. Throughout the 20th century, American arts have grown to incorporate new visions and voices. Much of this new artistic energy came in the wake of America’s emergence as a superpower after World War II.But it was also due to the growth of New York City as an important center for publishing and the arts, and the immigration of artists and intellectuals fleeing fascism in Europe before and during the war. An outpouring of talent also followed the civil rights and protest movements of the 1960s, as cultural discrimination against blacks, women, and other groups diminished. American arts flourish in many places and receive support from private foundations, large corporations, local governments, federal agencies, museums, galleries, and individuals.What is considered worthy of support often depends on definitions of quality and of what constitutes art. This is a tricky subject when the popular arts are increasingly incorporated into the domain of the fine arts and new forms such as performance art and conceptual art appear. As a result, defining what is art affects what students are taught about past traditions (for example, Native American tent paintings, oral traditions, and slave narratives) and what is produced in the future.While some practitioners, such as studio artists, are more vulnerable to these definitions because they depend on financial support to exercise their talents, others, such as poets and photographers, a re less immediately constrained. Artists operate in a world where those who theorize and critique their work have taken on an increasingly important role. Audiences are influenced by a variety of intermediaries—critics, the schools, foundations that offer grants, the National Endowment for the Arts, gallery owners, publishers, and theater producers.In some areas, such as the performing arts, popular audiences may ultimately define success. In other arts, such as painting and sculpture, success is far more dependent on critics and a few, often wealthy, art collectors. Writers depend on publishers and on the public for their success. Unlike their predecessors, who relied on formal criteria and appealed to aesthetic judgments, critics at the end of the 20th century leaned more toward popular tastes, taking into account groups previously ignored and valuing the merger of popular and elite forms.These critics often relied less on aesthetic judgments than on social measures and wer e eager to place artistic productions in the context of the time and social conditions in which they were created. Whereas earlier critics attempted to create an American tradition of high art, later critics used art as a means to give power and approval to nonelite groups who were previously not considered worthy of including in the nation’s artistic heritage. Not so long ago, culture and the arts were assumed to be an unalterable inheritance—the accumulated wisdom and highest forms of achievement that were established in the past.In the 20th century generally, and certainly since World War II, artists have been boldly destroying older traditions in sculpture, painting, dance, music, and literature. The arts have changed rapidly, with one movement replacing another in quick succession. a) Visual arts. The visual arts have traditionally included forms of expression that appeal to the eyes through painted surfaces, and to the sense of space through carved or molded mate rials. In the 19th century, photographs were added to the paintings, drawings, and sculpture that make up the visual arts.The visual arts were further augmented in the 20th century by the addition of other materials, such as found objects. These changes were accompanied by a profound alteration in tastes, as earlier emphasis on realistic representation of people, objects, and landscapes made way for a greater range of imaginative forms. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, American art was considered inferior to European art. Despite noted American painters such as Thomas Eakins, Winslow Homer, Mary Cassatt, and John Marin, American visual arts barely had an international presence.American art began to flourish during the Great Depression of the 1930s as New Deal government programs provided support to artists along with other sectors of the population. Artists connected with each other and developed a sense of common purpose through programs of the Public Works Administra tion, such as the Federal Art Project, as well as programs sponsored by the Treasury Department. Most of the art of the period, including painting, photography, and mural work, focused on the plight of the American people during the depression, and most artists painted real people in difficult circumstances.Artists such as Thomas Hart Benton and Ben Shahn expressed the suffering of ordinary people through their representations of struggling farmers and workers. While artists such as Benton and Grant Wood focused on rural life, many painters of the 1930s and 1940s depicted the multicultural life of the American city. Jacob Lawrence, for example, re-created the history and lives of African Americans. Other artists, such as Andrew Wyeth and Edward Hopper, tried to use human figures to describe emotional states such as loneliness and despair. Abstract Expressionism.Shortly after World War II, American art began to garner worldwide attention and admiration. This change was due to the inn ovative fervor of abstract expressionism in the 1950s and to subsequent modern art movements and artists. The abstract expressionists of the mid-20th century broke from the realist and figurative tradition set in the 1930s. They emphasized their connection to international artistic visions rather than the particularities of people and place, and most abstract expressionists did not paint human figures (although artist Willem de Kooning did portrayals of women).Color, shape, and movement dominated the canvases of abstract expressionists. Some artists broke with the Western art tradition by adopting innovative painting styles—during the 1950s Jackson Pollock â€Å"painted† by dripping paint on canvases without the use of brushes, while the paintings of Mark Rothko often consisted of large patches of color that seem to vibrate. Abstract expressionists felt alienated from their surrounding culture and used art to challenge society’s conventions. The work of each art ist was quite individual and distinctive, but all the artists identified with the radicalism of artistic creativity.The artists were eager to challenge conventions and limits on expression in order to redefine the nature of art. Their radicalism came from liberating themselves from the confining artistic traditions of the past. The most notable activity took place in New York City, which became one of the world’s most important art centers during the second half of the 20th century. The radical fervor and inventiveness of the abstract expressionists, their frequent association with each other in New York City’s Greenwich Village, and the support of a group of gallery owners and dealers turned them into an artistic movement.Also known as the New York School, the participants included Barnett Newman, Robert Motherwell, Franz Kline, and Arshile Gorky, in addition to Rothko and Pollock. The members of the New York School came from diverse backgrounds such as the American M idwest and Northwest, Armenia, and Russia, bringing an international flavor to the group and its artistic visions. They hoped to appeal to art audiences everywhere, regardless of culture, and they felt connected to the radical innovations introduced earlier in the 20th century by European artists such as Pablo Picasso and Marcel Duchamp.Some of the artists—Hans Hofmann, Gorky, Rothko, and de Kooning—were not born in the United States, but all the artists saw themselves as part of an international creative movement and an aesthetic rebellion. As artists felt released from the boundaries and conventions of the past and free to emphasize expressiveness and innovation, the abstract expressionists gave way to other innovative styles in American art. Beginning in the 1930s Joseph Cornell created hundreds of boxed assemblages, usually from found objects, with each based on a single theme to create a mood of contemplation and sometimes of reverence.Cornell's boxes exemplify th e modern fascination with individual vision, art that breaks down boundaries between forms such as painting and sculpture, and the use of everyday objects toward a new end. Other artists, such as Robert Rauschenberg, combined disparate objects to create large, collage-like sculptures known as combines in the 1950s. Jasper Johns, a painter, sculptor, and printmaker, recreated countless familiar objects, most memorably the American flag. The most prominent American artistic style to follow abstract expressionism was the pop art movement that began in the 1950s.Pop art attempted to connect traditional art and popular culture by using images from mass culture. To shake viewers out of their preconceived notions about art, sculptor Claes Oldenburg used everyday objects such as pillows and beds to create witty, soft sculptures. Roy Lichtenstein took this a step further by elevating the techniques of commercial art, notably cartooning, into fine art worthy of galleries and museums. Lichtens tein's large, blown-up cartoons fill the surface of his canvases with grainy black dots and question the existence of a distinct realm of high art.These artists tried to make their audiences see ordinary objects in a refreshing new way, thereby breaking down the conventions that formerly defined what was worthy of artistic representation. Probably the best-known pop artist, and a leader in the movement, was Andy Warhol, whose images of a Campbell’s soup can and of the actress Marilyn Monroe explicitly eroded the boundaries between the art world and mass culture. Warhol also cultivated his status as a celebrity. He worked in film as a director and producer to break down the boundaries between traditional and popular art.Unlike the abstract expressionists, whose conceptual works were often difficult to understand, Andy Warhol's pictures, and his own face, were instantly recognizable. Conceptual art, as it came to be known in the 1960s, like its predecessors, sought to break fre e of traditional artistic associations. In conceptual art, as practiced by Sol LeWitt and Joseph Kosuth, concept takes precedent over actual object, by stimulating thought rather than following an art tradition based on conventional standards of beauty and artisanship.Modern artists changed the meaning of traditional visual arts and brought a new imaginative dimension to ordinary experience. Art was no longer viewed as separate and distinct, housed in museums as part of a historical inheritance, but as a continuous creative process. This emphasis on constant change, as well as on the ordinary and mundane, reflected a distinctly American democratizing perspective. Viewing art in this way removed the emphasis from technique and polished performance, and many modern artworks and experiences became more about expressing ideas than about perfecting finished products. Photography.Photography is probably the most democratic modern art form because it can be, and is, practiced by most Ameri cans. Since 1888, when George Eastman developed the Kodak camera that allowed anyone to take pictures, photography has struggled to be recognized as a fine art form. In the early part of the 20th century, photographer, editor, and artistic impresario Alfred Stieglitz established 291, a gallery in New York City, with fellow photographer Edward Steichen, to showcase the works of photographers and painters. They also published a magazine called Camera Work to increase awareness about photographic art.In the United States, photographic art had to compete with the widely available commercial photography in news and fashion magazines. By the 1950s the tradition of photojournalism, which presented news stories primarily with photographs, had produced many outstanding works. In 1955 Steichen, who was director of photography at the Museum of Modern Art in New York, called attention to this work in an exhibition called The Family of Man. Throughout the 20th century, most professional photogra phers earned their living as portraitists or photojournalists, not as artists.One of the most important exceptions was Ansel Adams, who took majestic photographs of the Western American landscape. Adams used his art to stimulate social awareness and to support the conservation cause of the Sierra Club. He helped found the photography department at the Museum of Modern Art in 1940, and six years later helped establish the photography department at the California School of Fine Arts in San Francisco (now the San Francisco Art Institute). He also held annual photography workshops at Yosemite National Park from 1955 to 1981 and wrote a series of influential books on photographic technique.Adams's elegant landscape photography was only one small stream in a growing current of interest in photography as an art form. Early in the 20th century, teacher-turned-photographer Lewis Hine established a documentary tradition in photography by capturing actual people, places, and events. Hine photo graphed urban conditions and workers, including child laborers. Along with their artistic value, the photographs often implicitly called for social reform. In the 1930s and 1940s, photographers joined with other depression-era artists supported by the federal government to create a hotographic record of rural America. Walker Evans, Dorothea Lange, and Arthur Rothstein, among others, produced memorable and widely reproduced portraits of rural poverty and American distress during the Great Depression and during the dust storms of the period. In 1959, after touring the United States for two years, Swiss-born photographer Robert Frank published The Americans, one of the landmarks of documentary photography. His photographs of everyday life in America introduced viewers to a depressing, and often depressed, America that existed in the midst of prosperity and world power.Photographers continued to search for new photographic viewpoints. This search was perhaps most disturbingly embodied i n the work of Diane Arbus. Her photos of mental patients and her surreal depictions of Americans altered the viewer’s relationship to the photograph. Arbus emphasized artistic alienation and forced viewers to stare at images that often made them uncomfortable, thus changing the meaning of the ordinary reality that photographs are meant to capture. American photography continues to flourish.The many variants of art photography and socially conscious documentary photography are widely available in galleries, books, and magazines. A host of other visual arts thrive, although they are far less connected to traditional fine arts than photography. Decorative arts include, but are not limited to, art glass, furniture, jewelry, pottery, metalwork, and quilts. Often exhibited in craft galleries and studios, these decorative arts rely on ideals of beauty in shape and color as well as an appreciation of well-executed crafts. Some of these forms are also developed commercially.The decora tive arts provide a wide range of opportunity for creative expression and have become a means for Americans to actively participate in art and to purchase art for their homes that is more affordable than works produced by many contemporary fine artists. 4. Performing arts As in other cultural spheres, the performing arts in the United States in the 20th century increasingly blended traditional and popular art forms. The classical performing arts—music, opera, dance, and theater—were not a widespread feature of American culture in the first half of the 20th century.These arts were generally imported from or strongly influenced by Europe and were mainly appreciated by the wealthy and well educated. Traditional art usually referred to classical forms in ballet and opera, orchestral or chamber music, and serious drama. The distinctions between traditional music and popular music were firmly drawn in most areas. During the 20th century, the American performing arts began to incorporate wider groups of people. The African American community produced great musicians who became widely known around the country.Jazz and blues singers such as Bessie Smith, Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, and Billie Holiday spread their sounds to black and white audiences. In the 1930s and 1940s, the swing music of Benny Goodman, Tommy Dorsey, and Glenn Miller adapted jazz to make a unique American music that was popular around the country. The American performing arts also blended Latin American influences beginning in the 20th century. Between 1900 and 1940, Latin American dances, such as the tango from Argentina and the rumba from Cuba, were introduced into the United States.In the 1940s a fusion of Latin and jazz elements was stimulated first by the Afro-Cuban mambo and later on by the Brazilian bossa nova. Throughout the 20th century, dynamic classical institutions in the United States attracted international talent. Noted Russian-born choreographer George Balanchine e stablished the short-lived American Ballet Company in the 1930s; later he founded the company that in the 1940s would become the New York City Ballet. The American Ballet Theatre, also established during the 1940s, brought in non-American dancers as well.By the 1970s this company had attracted Soviet defector Mikhail Baryshnikov, an internationally acclaimed dancer who served as the company’s artistic director during the 1980s. In classical music, influential Russian composer Igor Stravinsky, who composed symphonies using innovative musical styles, moved to the United States in 1939. German-born pianist, composer, and conductor Andre Previn, who started out as a jazz pianist in the 1940s, went on to conduct a number of distinguished American symphony orchestras.Another Soviet, cellist Mstislav Rostropovich, became conductor of the National Symphony Orchestra in Washington, D. C. , in 1977. Some of the most innovative artists in the first half of the 20th century successfully incorporated new forms into classical traditions. Composers George Gershwin and Aaron Copland, and dancer Isadora Duncan were notable examples. Gershwin combined jazz and spiritual music with classical in popular works such as Rhapsody in Blue (1924) and the opera Porgy and Bess (1935).Copland developed a unique style that was influenced by jazz and American folk music. Early in the century, Duncan redefined dance along more expressive and free-form lines. Some artists in music and dance, such as composer John Cage and dancer and choreographer Merce Cunningham, were even more experimental. During the 1930s Cage worked with electronically produced sounds and sounds made with everyday objects such as pots and pans. He even invented a new kind of piano.During the late 1930s, avant-garde choreographer Cunningham began to collaborate with Cage on a number of projects. Perhaps the greatest, and certainly the most popular, American innovation was the Broadway musical, which also became a m ovie staple. Beginning in the 1920s, the Broadway musical combined music, dance, and dramatic performance in ways that surpassed the older vaudeville shows and musical revues but without being as complex as European grand opera.By the 1960s, this American musical tradition was well established and had produced extraordinary works by important musicians and lyricists such as George and Ira Gershwin, Irving Berlin, Cole Porter, Richard Rodgers, Lorenz Hart, Jerome Kern, and Oscar Hammerstein II. These productions required an immense effort to coordinate music, drama, and dance. Because of this, the musical became the incubator of an American modern dance tradition that produced some of America's greatest choreographers, among them Jerome Robbins, Gene Kelly, and Bob Fosse.In the 1940s and 1950s the American musical tradition was so dynamic that it attracted outstanding classically trained musicians such as Leonard Bernstein. Bernstein composed the music for West Side Story, an updated version of Romeo and Juliet set in New York that became an instant classic in 1957. The following year, Bernstein became the first American-born conductor to lead a major American orchestra, the New York Philharmonic. He was an international sensation who traveled the world as an ambassador of the American style of conducting.He brought the art of classical music to the public, especially through his â€Å"Young People's Concerts,† television shows that were seen around the world. Bernstein used the many facets of the musical tradition as a force for change in the music world and as a way of bringing attention to American innovation. In many ways, Bernstein embodied a transformation of American music that began in the 1960s. The changes that took place during the 1960s and 1970s resulted from a significant increase in funding for the arts and their increased availability to larger audiences.New York City, the American center for art performances, experienced an artistic expl osion in the 1960s and 1970s. Experimental off-Broadway theaters opened, new ballet companies were established that often emphasized modern forms or blended modern with classical (Martha Graham was an especially important influence), and an experimental music scene developed that included composers such as Philip Glass and performance groups such as the Guarneri String Quartet. Dramatic innovation also continued to expand with the works of playwrights such as Edward Albee, Tony Kushner, and David Mamet.As the variety of performances expanded, so did the serious crossover between traditional and popular music forms. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, an expanded repertoire of traditional arts was being conveyed to new audiences. Popular music and jazz could be heard in formal settings such as Carnegie Hall, which had once been restricted to classical music, while the Brooklyn Academy of Music became a venue for experimental music, exotic and ethnic dance presentations, and traditional p roductions of grand opera. Innovative producer Joseph Papp had been staging Shakespeare in Central Park since the 1950s.Boston conductor Arthur Fiedler was playing a mixed repertoire of classical and popular favorites to large audiences, often outdoors, with the Boston Pops Orchestra. By the mid-1970s the United States had several world-class symphony orchestras, including those in Chicago; New York; Cleveland, Ohio; and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Even grand opera was affected. Once a specialized taste that often required extensive knowledge, opera in the United States increased in popularity as the roster of respected institutions grew to include companies in Seattle, Washington; Houston, Texas; and Santa Fe, New Mexico.American composers such as John Adams and Philip Glass began composing modern operas in a new minimalist style during the 1970s and 1980s. The crossover in tastes also influenced the Broadway musical, probably America's most durable music form. Starting in the 1960 s, rock music became an ingredient in musical productions such as Hair (1967). By the 1990s, it had become an even stronger presence in musicals such as Bring in Da Noise, Bring in Da Funk (1996), which used African American music and dance traditions, and Rent (1996) a modern, rock version of the classic opera La Boheme.This updating of the musical opened the theater to new ethnic audiences who had not previously attended Broadway shows, as well as to young audiences who had been raised on rock music. Performances of all kinds have become more available across the country. This is due to both the sheer increase in the number of performance groups as well as to advances in transportation. In the last quarter of the 20th century, the number of major American symphonies doubled, the number of resident theaters increased fourfold, and the number of dance companies increased tenfold.At the same time, planes made it easier for artists to travel. Artists and companies regularly tour, and they expand the audiences for individual artists such as performance artist Laurie Anderson and opera singer Jessye Norman, for musical groups such as the Juilliard Quartet, and for dance troupes such as the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater. Full-scale theater productions and musicals first presented on Broadway now reach cities across the country. The United States, once a provincial outpost with a limited European tradition in performance, has become a flourishing center for the performing arts. . Arts and letters The arts, more than other features of culture, provide avenues for the expression of imagination and personal vision. They offer a range of emotional and intellectual pleasures to consumers of art and are an important way in which a culture represents itself. There has long been a Western tradition distinguishing those arts that appeal to the multitude, such as popular music, from those—such as classical orchestral music—normally available to the elite of learning and taste. Popular art forms are usually seen as more representative American products.In the United States in the recent past, there has been a blending of popular and elite art forms, as all the arts experienced a period of remarkable cross-fertilization. Because popular art forms are so widely distributed, arts of all kinds have prospered. The arts in the United States express the many faces and the enormous creative range of the American people. Especially since World War II, American innovations and the immense energy displayed in literature, dance, and music have made American cultural works world famous.Arts in the United States have become internationally prominent in ways that are unparalleled in history. American art forms during the second half of the 20th century often defined the styles and qualities that the rest of the world emulated. At the end of the 20th century, American art was considered equal in quality and vitality to art produced in the rest of the world. Throughout the 20th century, American arts have grown to incorporate new visions and voices. Much of this new artistic energy came in the wake of America’s emergence as a superpower after World War II.But it was also due to the growth of New York City as an important center for publishing and the arts, and the immigration of artists and intellectuals fleeing fascism in Europe before and during the war. An outpouring of talent also followed the civil rights and protest movements of the 1960s, as cultural discrimination against blacks, women, and other groups diminished. American arts flourish in many places and receive support from private foundations, large corporations, local governments, federal agencies, museums, galleries, and individuals.What is considered worthy of support often depends on definitions of quality and of what constitutes art. This is a tricky subject when the popular arts are increasingly incorporated into the domain of the fine arts and new forms such as performance art and conceptual art appear. As a result, defining what is art affects what students are taught about past traditions (for example, Native American tent paintings, oral traditions, and slave narratives) and what is produced in the future.While some practitioners, such as studio artists, are more vulnerable to these definitions because they depend on financial support to exercise their talents, others, such as poets and photographers, are less immediately constrained. Artists operate in a world where those who theorize and critique their work have taken on an increasingly important role. Audiences are influenced by a variety of intermediaries—critics, the schools, foundations that offer grants, the National Endowment for the Arts, gallery owners, publishers, and theater producers.In some areas, such as the performing arts, popular audiences may ultimately define success. In other arts, such as painting and sculpture, success is far more dependent on criti cs and a few, often wealthy, art collectors. Writers depend on publishers and on the public for their success. Unlike their predecessors, who relied on formal criteria and appealed to aesthetic judgments, critics at the end of the 20th century leaned more toward popular tastes, taking into account groups previously ignored and valuing the merger of popular and elite forms. These critics ften relied less on aesthetic judgments than on social measures and were eager to place artistic productions in the context of the time and social conditions in which they were created. Whereas earlier critics attempted to create an American tradition of high art, later critics used art as a means to give power and approval to nonelite groups who were previously not considered worthy of including in the nation’s artistic heritage. Not so long ago, culture and the arts were assumed to be an unalterable inheritance—the accumulated wisdom and highest forms of achievement that were establis hed in the past.In the 20th century generally, and certainly since World War II, artists have been boldly destroying older traditions in sculpture, painting, dance, music, and literature. The arts have changed rapidly, with one movement replacing another in quick succession. a) Visual arts. The visual arts have traditionally included forms of expression that appeal to the eyes through painted surfaces, and to the sense of space through carved or molded materials. In the 19th century, photographs were added to the paintings, drawings, and sculpture that make up the visual arts.The visual arts were further augmented in the 20th century by the addition of other materials, such as found objects. These changes were accompanied by a profound alteration in tastes, as earlier emphasis on realistic representation of people, objects, and landscapes made way for a greater range of imaginative forms. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, American art was considered inferior to European art. Despite noted American painters such as Thomas Eakins, Winslow Homer, Mary Cassatt, and John Marin, American visual arts barely had an international presence.American art began to flourish during the Great Depression of the 1930s as New Deal government programs provided support to artists along with other sectors of the population. Artists connected with each other and developed a sense of common purpose through programs of the Public Works Administration, such as the Federal Art Project, as well as programs sponsored by the Treasury Department. Most of the art of the period, including painting, photography, and mural work, focused on the plight of the American people during the depression, and most artists painted real people in difficult circumstances.Artists such as Thomas Hart Benton and Ben Shahn expressed the suffering of ordinary people through their representations of struggling farmers and workers. While artists such as Benton and Grant Wood focused on rural life, man y painters of the 1930s and 1940s depicted the multicultural life of the American city. Jacob Lawrence, for example, re-created the history and lives of African Americans. Other artists, such as Andrew Wyeth and Edward Hopper, tried to use human figures to describe emotional states such as loneliness and despair. Abstract Expressionism.Shortly after World War II, American art began to garner worldwide attention and admiration. This change was due to the innovative fervor of abstract expressionism in the 1950s and to subsequent modern art movements and artists. The abstract expressionists of the mid-20th century broke from the realist and figurative tradition set in the 1930s. They emphasized their connection to international artistic visions rather than the particularities of people and place, and most abstract expressionists did not paint human figures (although artist Willem de Kooning did portrayals of women).Color, shape, and movement dominated the canvases of abstract expressio nists. Some artists broke with the Western art tradition by adopting innovative painting styles—during the 1950s Jackson Pollock â€Å"painted† by dripping paint on canvases without the use of brushes, while the paintings of Mark Rothko often consisted of large patches of color that seem to vibrate. Abstract expressionists felt alienated from their surrounding culture and used art to challenge society’s conventions. The work of each artist was quite individual and distinctive, but all the artists identified with the radicalism of artistic creativity.The artists were eager to challenge conventions and limits on expression in order to redefine the nature of art. Their radicalism came from liberating themselves from the confining artistic traditions of the past. The most notable activity took place in New York City, which became one of the world’s most important art centers during the second half of the 20th century. The radical fervor and inventiveness of t he abstract expressionists, their frequent association with each other in New York City’s Greenwich Village, and the support of a group of gallery owners and dealers turned them into an artistic movement.Also known as the New York School, the participants included Barnett Newman, Robert Motherwell, Franz Kline, and Arshile Gorky, in addition to Rothko and Pollock. The members of the New York School came from diverse backgrounds such as the American Midwest and Northwest, Armenia, and Russia, bringing an international flavor to the group and its artistic visions. They hoped to appeal to art audiences everywhere, regardless of culture, and they felt connected to the radical innovations introduced earlier in the 20th century by European artists such as Pablo Picasso and Marcel Duchamp.Some of the artists—Hans Hofmann, Gorky, Rothko, and de Kooning—were not born in the United States, but all the artists saw themselves as part of an international creative movement an d an aesthetic rebellion. As artists felt released from the boundaries and conventions of the past and free to emphasize expressiveness and innovation, the abstract expressionists gave way to other innovative styles in American art. Beginning in the 1930s Joseph Cornell created hundreds of boxed assemblages, usually from found objects, with each based on a single theme to create a mood of contemplation and sometimes of reverence.Cornell's boxes exemplify the modern fascination with individual vision, art that breaks down boundaries between forms such as painting and sculpture, and the use of everyday objects toward a new end. Other artists, such as Robert Rauschenberg, combined disparate objects to create large, collage-like sculptures known as combines in the 1950s. Jasper Johns, a painter, sculptor, and printmaker, recreated countless familiar objects, most memorably the American flag. The most prominent American artistic style to follow abstract expressionism was the pop art move ment that began in the 1950s.Pop art attempted to connect traditional art and popular culture by using images from mass culture. To shake viewers out of their preconceived notions about art, sculptor Claes Oldenburg used everyday objects such as pillows and beds to create witty, soft sculptures. Roy Lichtenstein took this a step further by elevating the techniques of commercial art, notably cartooning, into fine art worthy of galleries and museums. Lichtenstein's large, blown-up cartoons fill the surface of his canvases with grainy black dots and question the existence of a distinct realm of high art.These artists tried to make their audiences see ordinary objects in a refreshing new way, thereby breaking down the conventions that formerly defined what was worthy of artistic representation. Probably the best-known pop artist, and a leader in the movement, was Andy Warhol, whose images of a Campbell’s soup can and of the actress Marilyn Monroe explicitly eroded the boundaries between the art world and mass culture. Warhol also cultivated his status as a celebrity. He worked in film as a director and producer to break down the boundaries between traditional and opular art. Unlike the abstract expressionists, whose conceptual works were often difficult to understand, Andy Warhol's pictures, and his own face, were instantly recognizable. Conceptual art, as it came to be known in the 1960s, like its predecessors, sought to break free of traditional artistic associations. In conceptual art, as practiced by Sol LeWitt and Joseph Kosuth, concept takes precedent over actual object, by stimulating thought rather than following an art tradition based on conventional standards of beauty and artisanship.Modern artists changed the meaning of traditional visual arts and brought a new imaginative dimension to ordinary experience. Art was no longer viewed as separate and distinct, housed in museums as part of a historical inheritance, but as a continuous creative proces s. This emphasis on constant change, as well as on the ordinary and mundane, reflected a distinctly American democratizing perspective. Viewing art in this way removed the emphasis from technique and polished performance, and many modern artworks and experiences became more about expressing ideas than about perfecting finished products.Photography. Photography is probably the most democratic modern art form because it can be, and is, practiced by most Americans. Since 1888, when George Eastman developed the Kodak camera that allowed anyone to take pictures, photography has struggled to be recognized as a fine art form. In the early part of the 20th century, photographer, editor, and artistic impresario Alfred Stieglitz established 291, a gallery in New York City, with fellow photographer Edward Steichen, to showcase the works of photographers and painters.They also published a magazine called Camera Work to increase awareness about photographic art. In the United States, photographi c art had to compete with the widely available commercial photography in news and fashion magazines. By the 1950s the tradition of photojournalism, which presented news stories primarily with photographs, had produced many outstanding works. In 1955 Steichen, who was director of photography at the Museum of Modern Art in New York, called attention to this work in an exhibition called The Family of Man.Throughout the 20th century, most professional photographers earned their living as portraitists or photojournalists, not as artists. One of the most important exceptions was Ansel Adams, who took majestic photographs of the Western American landscape. Adams used his art to stimulate social awareness and to support the conservation cause of the Sierra Club. He helped found the photography department at the Museum of Modern Art in 1940, and six years later helped establish the photography department at the California School of Fine Arts in San Francisco (now the San Francisco Art Instit ute).He also held annual photography workshops at Yosemite National Park from 1955 to 1981 and wrote a series of influential books on photographic technique. Adams's elegant landscape photography was only one small stream in a growing current of interest in photography as an art form. Early in the 20th century, teacher-turned-photographer Lewis Hine established a documentary tradition in photography by capturing actual people, places, and events. Hine photographed urban conditions and workers, including child laborers.Along with their artistic value, the photographs often implicitly called for social reform. In the 1930s and 1940s, photographers joined with other depression-era artists supported by the federal government to create a photographic record of rural America. Walker Evans, Dorothea Lange, and Arthur Rothstein, among others, produced memorable and widely reproduced portraits of rural poverty and American distress during the Great Depression and during the dust storms of th e period.In 1959, after touring the United States for two years, Swiss-born photographer Robert Frank published The Americans, one of the landmarks of documentary photography. His photographs of everyday life in America introduced viewers to a depressing, and often depressed, America that existed in the midst of prosperity and world power. Photographers continued to search for new photographic viewpoints. This search was perhaps most disturbingly embodied in the work of Diane Arbus. Her photos of mental patients and her surreal depictions of Americans altered the viewer’s relationship to the photograph.Arbus emphasized artistic alienation and forced viewers to stare at images that often made them uncomfortable, thus changing the meaning of the ordinary reality that photographs are meant to capture. American photography continues to flourish. The many variants of art photography and socially conscious documentary photography are widely available in galleries, books, and magazi nes. A host of other visual arts thrive, although they are far less connected to traditional fine arts than photography.Decorative arts include, but are not limited to, art glass, furniture, jewelry, pottery, metalwork, and quilts. Often exhibited in craft galleries and studios, these decorative arts rely on ideals of beauty in shape and color as well as an appreciation of well-executed crafts. Some of these forms are also developed commercially. The decorative arts provide a wide range of opportunity for creative expression and have become a means for Americans to actively participate in art and to purchase art for their homes that is more affordable than works produced by many contemporary fine artists. . Performing arts As in other cultural spheres, the performing arts in the United States in the 20th century increasingly blended traditional and popular art forms. The classical performing arts—music, opera, dance, and theater—were not a widespread feature of America n culture in the first half of the 20th century. These arts were generally imported from or strongly influenced by Europe and were mainly appreciated by the wealthy and well educated. Traditional art usually referred to classical forms in ballet and opera, orchestral or chamber music, and serious drama.The distinctions between traditional music and popular music were firmly drawn in most areas. During the 20th century, the American performing arts began to incorporate wider groups of people. The African American community produced great musicians who became widely known around the country. Jazz and blues singers such as Bessie Smith, Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, and Billie Holiday spread their sounds to black and white audiences. In the 1930s and 1940s, the swing music of Benny Goodman, Tommy Dorsey, and Glenn Miller adapted jazz to make a unique American music that was popular around the country.The American performing arts also blended Latin American influences beginning in th e 20th century. Between 1900 and 1940, Latin American dances, such as the tango from Argentina and the rumba from Cuba, were introduced into the United States. In the 1940s a fusion of Latin and jazz elements was stimulated first by the Afro-Cuban mambo and later on by the Brazilian bossa nova. Throughout the 20th century, dynamic classical institutions in the United States attracted international talent.Noted Russian-born choreographer George Balanchine established the short-lived American Ballet Company in the 1930s; later he founded the company that in the 1940s would become the New York City Ballet. The American Ballet Theatre, also established during the 1940s, brought in non-American dancers as well. By the 1970s this company had attracted Soviet defector Mikhail Baryshnikov, an internationally acclaimed dancer who served as the company’s artistic director during the 1980s. In classical music, influential Russian composer Igor Stravinsky, who composed symphonies using i nnovative musical styles, moved to the United States in 1939.German-born pianist, composer, and conductor Andre Previn, who started out as a jazz pianist in the 1940s, went on to conduct a number of distinguished American symphony orchestras. Another Soviet, cellist Mstislav Rostropovich, became conductor of the National Symphony Orchestra in Washington, D. C. , in 1977. Some of the most innovative artists in the first half of the 20th century successfully incorporated new forms into classical traditions. Composers George Gershwin and Aaron Copland, and dancer Isadora Duncan were notable examples.Gershwin combined jazz and spiritual music with classical in popular works such as Rhapsody in Blue (1924) and the opera Porgy and Bess (1935). Copland developed a unique style that was influenced by jazz and American folk music. Early in the century, Duncan redefined dance along more expressive and free-form lines. Some artists in music and dance, such as composer John Cage and dancer and choreographer Merce Cunningham, were even more experimental. During the 1930s Cage worked with electronically produced sounds and sounds made with everyday objects such as pots and pans.He even invented a new kind of piano. During the late 1930s, avant-garde choreographer Cunningham began to collaborate with Cage on a number of projects. Perhaps the greatest, and certainly the most popular, American innovation was the Broadway musical, which also became a movie staple. Beginning in the 1920s, the Broadway musical combined music, dance, and dramatic performance in ways that surpassed the older vaudeville shows and musical revues but without being as complex as European grand opera.By the 1960s, this American musical tradition was well established and had produced extraordinary works by important musicians and lyricists such as George and Ira Gershwin, Irving Berlin, Cole Porter, Richard Rodgers, Lorenz Hart, Jerome Kern, and Oscar Hammerstein II. These productions required an immense effort to coordinate music, drama, and dance. Because of this, the musical became the incubator of an American modern dance tradition that produced some of America's greatest choreographers, among them Jerome Robbins, Gene Kelly, and Bob Fosse.In the 1940s and 1950s the American musical tradition was so dynamic that it attracted outstanding classically trained musicians such as Leonard Bernstein. Bernstein composed the music for West Side Story, an updated version of Romeo and Juliet set in New York that became an instant classic in 1957. The following year, Bernstein became the first American-born conductor to lead a major American orchestra, the New York Philharmonic. He was an international sensation who traveled the world as an ambassador of the American style of conducting.He brought the art of classical music to the public, especially through his â€Å"Young People's Concerts,† television shows that were seen around the world. Bernstein used the many facets of the musi cal tradition as a force for change in the music world and as a way of bringing attention to American innovation. In many ways, Bernstein embodied a transformation of American music that began in the 1960s. The changes that took place during the 1960s and 1970s resulted from a significant increase in funding for the arts and their increased availability to larger audiences.New York City, the American center for art performances, experienced an artistic explosion in the 1960s and 1970s. Experimental off-Broadway theaters opened, new ballet companies were established that often emphasized modern forms or blended modern with classical (Martha Graham was an especially important influence), and an experimental music scene developed that included composers such as Philip Glass and performance groups such as the Guarneri String Quartet. Dramatic innovation also continued to expand with the works of playwrights such as Edward Albee, Tony Kushner, and David Mamet.As the variety of performanc es expanded, so did the serious crossover between traditional and popular music forms. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, an expanded repertoire of traditional arts was being conveyed to new audiences. Popular music and jazz could be heard in formal settings such as Carnegie Hall, which had once been restricted to classical music, while the Brooklyn Academy of Music became a venue for experimental music, exotic and ethnic dance presentations, and traditional productions of grand opera. Innovative producer Joseph Papp had been staging Shakespeare in Central Park since the 1950s.Boston conductor Arthur Fiedler was playing a mixed repertoire of classical and popular favorites to large audiences, often outdoors, with the Boston Pops Orchestra. By the mid-1970s the United States had several world-class symphony orchestras, including those in Chicago; New York; Cleveland, Ohio; and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Even grand opera was affected. Once a specialized taste that often required extensi ve knowledge, opera in the United States increased in popularity as the roster of respected institutions grew to include companies in Seattle, Washington; Houston, Texas; and Santa Fe, New Mexico.American composers such as John Adams and Philip Glass began composing modern operas in a new minimalist style during the 1970s and 1980s. The crossover in tastes also influenced the Broadway musical, probably America's most durable music form. Starting in the 1960s, rock music became an ingredient in musical productions such as Hair (1967). By the 1990s, it had become an even stronger presence in musicals such as Bring in Da Noise, Bring in Da Funk (1996), which used African American music and dance traditions, and Rent (1996) a modern, rock version of the classic opera La Boheme.This updating of the musical opened the theater to new ethnic audiences who had not previously attended Broadway shows, as well as to young audiences who had been raised on rock music. Performances of all kinds ha ve become more available across the country. This is due to both the sheer increase in the number of performance groups as well as to advances in transportation. In the last quarter of the 20th century, the number of major American symphonies doubled, the number of resident theaters increased fourfold, and the number of dance companies increased tenfold.At the same time, planes made it easier for artists to travel. Artists and companies regularly tour, and they expand the audiences for individual artists such as performance artist Laurie Anderson and opera singer Jessye Norman, for musical groups such as the Juilliard Quartet, and for dance troupes such as the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater. Full-scale theater productions and musicals first presented on Broadway now reach cities across the country. The United States, once a provincial outpost with a limited European tradition in performance, has become a flourishing center for the performing arts.